An Historical Study of the Professions and Professional Education in the United States

316 Pages·2016·10.73 MB·English

by  John J. Ahern

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Dissertations Theses and Dissertations
1971
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John J. Ahern
Loyola University Chicago
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Copyright © 1971 John J. Ahern
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AN HISTORICAL STUDY OF THE PROFESSIONS AND PROFESSIONAL
EDUCATION IN THE UNITED STATES
by
Reverend John J. Ahern
A Dissertation Submitted to the Faculty of the
Graduate School of Loyola University
in Partial Fulfillment of the
Requirements for the Degree
of Doctor of Philosophy
Chicago, Illinois
June, 1970
AN HISTORICAL STUDY OF THE PROFESSIONS AND PROFESSIONAL EDUCATION """"
IN THE UNITED STATES
John Ahern, Reverend, Ph.D.
J~
Loyola University, Chicago, Illinois, 1971.
Advisor: Dr. Gerald L. Gutek
Purpose:
After indicating the religious, economic, social, and political sig
nificance of this study, this dissertation proposes 1) to demonstrate that the
European concept and definition of the professions and professional education
have transferred to and have continued in essence in the United States, and
2) to trace and describe historically the American origins and growth, the
internal and external moulding forces, the profile studies of the six leading
American professions, an analysis of the ideal education of the professional
American man, the present and future status and the problems of the American
professions and professional education. Finally, conclusions and implications
from the study for general and professional education are made.
Procedure:
The demonstration of the dissertation's two-fold purpose was made according
to the method of historical research. The purpose or thesis was asserted;
terminology was clarified. In Chapter I, the writings of two English and
eleven American educators, and sociologists were collected, isolated,
histori~ns,
and analyzed to demonstrate the European and American concept and definition
of, and to establish the historical transference and continuance of that concept
and definition of the professions and professional education from Europe to
America. In Chapter II, a concise history of the evolution of the professions
and professional education is traced from the Greco-Roman Period, through
the Medieval, English, the American the Eighteenth, Nineteenth, and
Colonial~
2
Twentieth Century periods in the United States. In Chapter III, the· internal
and external forces moulding American professions, such as the student-image
of self and of professions, professional licensure, certification, accreditation,
and finally society itself are analyzed. In Chapter IV, profile studies of
the leading American professions and professional education of medicine, law,
ministry, teaching, dentistry, and engineering are presented. In Chapter V,
as a sequence to the profile studies, the ideal education of the American
professional man is proposed. In Chapter IV, the present status and dimensions,
the continuing problems and the future of American professions and professional
education are researched. Some problems studied are those of professional
-
objectives, professional standards, recruitment, and the relationship between
the professional school and the university.
Conclusions:
At the end of each chapter specific conclusions on the chapter-study are
made. The general or over-all conclusions and implications of the dissertation
for professional education are stated in Chapter VII, such being the necessity
of professional men becoming involved in the historical research of their pro-
fession, the careless use of the term, ''profession," the need of a more in-depth
participation in their profession by teachers, the need of a more objective study
of the internal and external problems of the American ministry, and the re
lationship between the professional·school and the university. A precise
bibliography of over two-hundred works has been isolated and presented as most
pertinent to the study of the dissertation.
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TABLE OF CONTENTS
Page
INTRODUCTION..................................................... l
Chapter
I. THE CONCEPT AND DEFINITION OF PROFESSIONS AND
PROFESSIONAL EDUCATION IN THE UNITED STATES............ 10
Sir Alexander M. Carr-Saunders and P.A. Wilson
Morris L. Cogan
Myron Lieberman
Earl J. McGrath
William J. Goode
Howard S. Becker
Bernard Barber
Everett C. Hughes
Ernest Greenwood
Howard M. Vollmer and Donald L. Mills
Nina Toren
· Summary of Conclusions and Implications for Education
II. HISTORICAL EVOLUTION OF THE PROFESSIONS AND PROFESSIONAL
EDUCATION FROM THE GREEK PERIOD TO THE TWENTIETH
CENTURY. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . • . . . . . . . . . . 73
European Professions and Professional Education
American Professions and Professional Education
III. THE MOULDING FORCES OF THE PROFESSIONS AND PROFESSIONAL
EDUCATION ............................................... 121
Introduction
The Moulding Force of the Student
The Moulding Force of Licensure, Certification, and
Accreditation
The Moulding Force of Society
Conclusions and Implications for Education
i
Page
Chapter
IV. PROFILE STUDIES OF THE LEADING PROFESSIONS IN THE
UNITED STATES......................................... 166
Profile Study of the Profession of American Medicine
Profile Study of the Profession of American Law
Profile Study of the Profession of American Ministry
Profile Study of the Profession of American Teaching
Profile Study of the Profession of American Dentistry
Profile Study of the Profession of American Engineering
V. THE IDEAL EDUCATION OF THE PROFESSIONAL AMERICAN MAN... 260
Conclusions and Implications for the Ideal Education
of the Professional American Man
VI. PRESENT STATUS AND CONTINUING PROBLEMS OF PROFESSIONAL
EDUCATION: THE FUTURE OF THE PROFESSIONS AND
PROFESSIONAL EDUCATION................................. 272
Conclusions and Implications for the Present Status,
Continuing Problems, and Future of the Professions
and Professional Education in the United States
VII. CONCLUSIONS OF THE DISSERTATION ON THE HISTORY OF THE
PROFESSIONS AND PROFESSIONAL EDUCATION IN THE UNITED
STATES................................................. 284
BIBLIOGRAPHY..................................................... 293
ii
LIST OF TABLES
Table Page
1. Comparison of Characteristics of Students in
Four Professions ......................................... 127
2. Comparison of Characteristics of Doctor of
Philosophy, Law, and Medical Candidates .................. 133
3. Statistics on Professional Degrees Granted
in 1968 .................................................. 276
iii
INTRODUCTION
The purpose of this dissertation is to depict the history of the
professions and professional education in the United States by demonstrating
that the European concept, definition, and reality of a profession and
professional education have continued since profession's migration from
Europe via England to the American colonies, later the new "United States,"
and that the professions have developed their own history, problems, present
and future growth. From the very beginning let the reader be advised that
the terms, "profession, 11 and "profess ion al education, 11 refer to pro-
fession as a group and not to any one profession and its specific ed
ucational or academic program. Fortunately for this dissertation the
concept and definition, the history of ancient professions and professional
education in continental Europe and then England had been researched in
1933, and have been acknowledged by historians, educators, men in pro
fession, and sociologists in the excellent work of Sir A.M. Carr-Saunders
and P.A. Wilson, under the title of The Professions, the publication
•
statistics of which appear in the bibliography of this dissertation. Since
the professions and professional education, historically and naturally, if
somewhat slowly, were transferred by the English to their new American
colonies, later to become the United States, it was necessary to in
vestigate the European concept and definition of the professions and pro
fessional education and to trace the professions and professional ed
ucation in their history and development in the United States. Any
1
2
characteristics of the professions and professional education that might
be pecular to America are noted. Research of over two hundred books,
monographs, and periodicals pertinent to the purpose of the dissertation
indicated that no suth history in the vein of the Carr-Saunders and Wilson
work has been written concerning the professions and professional education
in the United States.
It is important, here, that certain basic terms be understood by the
reader as they are specifically used in this dissertation. Such terms
are "profession," "professional education," "semi-profession." "graduate
school," "professional school." At first it was determined by the
dissertation to give an immediate definition of these terms in the
Introduction, but it seemed more natural, logical, and time-saving to
simply define the terms as they appeared in the textual content.
The subject of the study of this dissertation is significant. Wherevef
possible, the religious, economical, social, and political significance
of a profession to society are emphasized. The religious significance
of this dissertation can be concluded from the need of religion in society.
Since the beginning of recorded history, the relationship between man and
his God has been vital. Some of the history, the role, the need of the
profession of ministry in American society, the characteristics, and
problems will be researched.
The economic significance of the professions and professional
education will be seen after considering that the 1970 Census predicts
that of 81.2 million people in the United States, 10.2 million will be
3
practicing or preparing to enter the professions. Education in the
United States is this country's second largest gross national product,
the war being the first. The cost of educating a professional group of
10.2 million out of 81.2 and its effect on the return of national living
and income is staggering. Thus, for economy's sake, the professions must
know their objectives, their costs, their means and hoped for service to the
national cummunity. This is especially significant in the l970's when
the escalation of education and national education programs such as
medicare and socialized medicine will be of prime concern. The significance
of the profession of teaching and medicine and their special educational
programs is noted immediately.
The democratic processes of the nation, the struggle for law and
order, the increased knowledge and applications of the rights of individuals
and minority groups, racial discrimination, etc., have focused the nation's
attention on the profession of law, its strengths and weaknesses, and its
future needs. Thus, there is significance to this dissertation's study of
the profession of law, which study may in some small way contribute to
the updating and clarification of the role of the legal profession in
society.
Population growth, industry's expansion, the automobile industry
outgrowing all proportion, urban renewal, new communities, space programs,
and military projects are just a few of the national needs demanding focus
on the excellent profession of engineering, whose basic concepts, origin,
characteristics, education, problems, and the future, will be studied.