An Expedition Without End: Measure of the Earth by Larrie D. Ferreiro (newspaper article) PDF
Preview An Expedition Without End: Measure of the Earth by Larrie D. Ferreiro (newspaper article)
An Expedition Without End MeasureoftheEarth ByLarrieD.Ferreiro (BasicBooks,353pages,$28) TheancientHebrewsneeded40yearstotravelfrom EgypttothePromisedLand.Butwhowouldbelieve thatinthe18thcentury—whentraderoutesacross theAtlantichadbeenestablishedfortwocenturiesand colonialroadsstretchedwellintotheSouthAmerican continent—agroupofscientiststravelingfromFranceto theareaofpresent-dayEcuadorwouldrequirealmost40 yearsforallthememberstocompletethetrip? Yetthisiswhathappenedtosomemembersofwhat LarrieD.Ferreirodescribesas“theworld’sfirstinter- nationalscientificexpedition.”Thegroup,whose adventuresaredeftlytoldin“MeasureoftheEarth,”left Francein1735onamissionorganizedbytheFrench AcademyofSciences.ThemembersoftheGeodesic Mission(laterjoinedbySpaniardstravelingseparately) werechargedbyLouisXVwithbringingbackfromSouth Americaonesinglenumberconsideredsoimportantthat FraTnhcieswnausmebaegrerwatositnhveeswtidmitlhlioofnosnoefdferganrcesetoofolbattiatiundeit. measuredattheequator.Itheldthekeytothepuzzleof twhaesschaallpeed.ofThoautrfpolranme,t,inotrur“nt,hewafsoremssoefnttihaelEtaortahn,”acacsuirtate navigationoftheseas,askillessentialtoaspiringimperial powers. Earlierdatahad impliedthatthe Earthmightbe shapedlikeanegg. ButNewton’s recentlypublished theoryofmechanics indicatedthata spinningEarthwould lookmorelikean apple,wideratthe equatorandflatterat thepoles.Sincethe Earth’srotationismost pronouncedatthe equator,thatpartofthe globebulgesthemost—for thesamereasonthatifyouswing aroundaweighttiedtoarubberband, thebandwillexpand.Thusadegreeoflatitudethereis smaller,inactualnorth-to-southdistance,thanadegree closertooneofthepoles.(IftheEarthwereaperfect sphere,adegreeoflatitudewouldbeeverywhereequal.) Toestablishthissimplefact,however,requiredtaking thousandsofpainstakingterrestrialandastronomical measurementsfromaseriesofsiteslocateddirectlyat theequator.Mr.Ferreiroisathisbestdescribingthe actualefforttodoso,withitsendlessadventuresand calamities.HavingarrivedinSouthAmerica,thescientists sotfaorpteerdatoinontsh.eiArwSapayntioshQumietom,bwehricohftwhaesetxopebdeittihoenirbase describedinhisjournalthechallengeoffightingoff mosquitoes:“Noexpedientwasofanyuseagainsttheir numbers;thesmokeofthetreesweburntallnightto dispersethemseemedtoaugmentratherthandiminish theirnumbers;ourfaceswereswollenandourbodies ablazeandcoveredinwelts.”Somememberscontracted malaria.Fortunately,thegroupwastravelingthroughthe veryregionthatishometothefabledcinchonatree—the “fevertree,”asthenativescalledit—whosebarkisthe sourceofquinine,usedasatreatment. Thedifficultieswerejustbeginning.The200-milearc thatthescientistshadchosentosurveytraveledacrossa lineofvolcanoesintheAndes,eachofwhichtheyhadto climb.Themencampedformonthsatanaltitudeof 15,000feet,battlingsubzerotemperaturesandcoping withaltitudesicknesswhilewaitingfortheskiestoclear sothattheycouldseetheterrainclearlyenoughtomake asinglemeasurementoutofthemanyrequired. Battlingsubzerotemperatures, swarmingmosquitoesandangry Inquisitors,alltofindasinglenumber. Theexpeditionwasbesetbymoneyproblems,too.Its unscrupulousleader,theastronomerLouisGodin, squanderedfundsonpersonalpleasures—includinga diamondringforhiscourtesan.Hewaseventually replaced,andtheworkcontinued.Asmonthsandyears passed,expensespiledup:forlodging,suppliesand slaves.SlaverywasawayoflifeintheAmericas:The scientistsusedslavestocarryheavysurveying equipment,suchasironquadrants,upmountainpathstoo difficultformules. Manyresidentcolonials,notunderstandingthe missionorevenwhatsciencewas,tooktheforeignersfor smugglers.IntheSouthAmericaofthattime,all smugglerswerebelievedtobeJews,andsincepracticing Judaismwaspunishablebydeath,thelocalheadofthe Inquisitiontookgreatinterestinthetravelers.Theyshook himoffthetrailbyinvitinghimfordinnerandtelling him:“Wewouldserveonlypork,withallitssauces.” Afterninelongyearsofmeasuringthegroundandthe ttcduemyuioLiciiLCb.liiexiierriDersoimeueoaesic ,Mwiesrseicohna(rlgaetedrbjyoiLnoeudisbyXVSpwaintiharbdrsintgrianvgelbiangcksefpraormatSeolyu)th Americaonesinglenumberconsideredsoimportantthat FraTnhcieswnausmebaegrerwatositnhveeswtidmitlhlioofnosnoefdferganrcesetoofolbattiatiundeit. measuredattheequator.Itheldthekeytothepuzzleof theshapeofourplanet,or“theformoftheEarth,”asit wascalled.Thatform,inturn,wasessentialtoanaccurate navigationoftheseas,askillessentialtoaspiringimperial powers. Earlierdatahad impliedthatthe Earthmightbe shaped'likeanegg. ButNewton’s recentlypublished theoryofmechanics indicatedthata spinningEarthwould lookmorelikean apple,wideratthe equatorandflatterat thepoles.Sincethe Earth’srotationismost pronouncedatthe equator,thatpartofthe globebulgesthemost—for thesamereasonthatifyouswing aroundaweighttiedtoarubberband, thebandwillexpand.Thusadegreeoflatitudethereis smaller,inactualnorth-to-southdistance,thanadegree closertooneofthepoles.(IftheEarthwereaperfect sphere,adegreeoflatitudewouldbeeverywhereequal.) Toestablishthissimplefact,however,requiredtaking thousandsofpainstakingterrestrialandastronomical measurementsfromaseriesofsiteslocateddirectlyat theequator.Mr.Ferreiroisathisbestdescribingthe actualefforttodoso,withitsendlessadventuresand calamities.HavingarrivedinSouthAmerica,thescientists startedontheirwaytoQuito,whichwastobetheirbase ofoperations.ASpanishmemberoftheexpedition describedinhisjournalthechallengeoffightingoff mosquitoes:“Noexpedientwasofanyuseagainsttheir numbers;thesmokeofthetreesweburntallnightto dispersethemseemedtoaugmentratherthandiminish theirnumbers;ourfaceswereswollenandourbodies ablazeandcoveredinwelts.”Somememberscontracted malaria.Fortunately,thegroupwastravelingthroughthe veryregionthatishometothefabledcinchonatree—the “fevertree,”asthenativescalledit—whosebarkisthe sourceofquinine,usedasatreatment. Thedifficultieswerejustbeginning.The200-milearc thatthescientistshadchosentosurveytraveledacrossa lineofvolcanoesintheAndes,eachofwhichtheyhadto climb.Themencampedformonthsatanaltitudeof 15,000feet,battlingsubzerotemperaturesandcoping withaltitudesicknesswhilewaitingfortheskiestoclear sothattheycouldseetheterrainclearlyenoughtomake asinglemeasurementoutofthemanyrequired. Battlingsubzerotemperatures, swarmingmosquitoesandangry Inquisitors,alltofindasinglenumber. Theexpeditionwasbesetbymoneyproblems,too.Its unscrupulousleader,theastronomerLouisGodin, squanderedfundsonpersonalpleasures—includinga diamondringforhiscourtesan.Hewaseventually replaced,andtheworkcontinued.Asmonthsandyears passed,expensespiledup:forlodging,suppliesand slaves.SlaverywasawayoflifeintheAmericas:The scientistsusedslavestocarryheavysurveying equipment,suchasironquadrants,upmountainpathstoo difficultformules. Manyresidentcolonials,notunderstandingthe missionorevenwhatsciencewas,tooktheforeignersfor smugglers.IntheSouthAmericaofthattime,all smugglerswerebelievedtobeJews,andsincepracticing Judaismwaspunishablebydeath,thelocalheadofthe Inquisitiontookgreatinterestinthetravelers.Theyshook himoffthetrailbyinvitinghimfordinnerandtelling him:“Wewouldserveonlypork,withallitssauces.” Afterninelongyearsofmeasuringthegroundandthe stars,thescientistsfinallytriumphedin1743.Theynow possessedthemagicnumber:68.70miles(usingourown units)foronedegreeoflatitudeontheequator,as choommpearaenddwpiretshe6n9t.t0h7eimrilfeisndiinngPsa.riBsu.tIttwheasWatrimoefttohereturn AustrianSuccessionhaddrawnEnglandandSpaininto viciousnavalhostilities,makingoceantravelperilous.So themendispersed,eachtofindhisownwayhome. ThefirstscientisttoarriveinParis,PierreBouguer, receivedfromtheacademytheaccoladesthatwerethe entireteam’sdue.Another,CharlesMariedeLa Condamine,whohadrafteddowndangerousrapidsand negotiatedtheunchartedAmazonbeforecrossingthe Atlantic,returnedalittlelaterandmadehisnameby publishinghisadventuresin1751. Butoneman,theteam’sdoctor,JosephdeJussieu, didn’thavethehearttoleavebehindthemanypeoplehe hadcomeacrossonhisway,inparticularthoseworking atasilverminethatusedmercuryinseparatingore,who neededhismedicalattention.Hefinallyreturnedto France36yearsafterthegroup’sdeparture.Another memberoftheexpedition,Jean-BaptisteGodindes Odonais,tookevenlongertoreturnhome.Marriedtoa localwoman,Isabel,herefusedtoleaveherbehindafter theyhadbecomeseparatedandPortugueseauthorities barredhisre-entrythroughtheirterritorytopickherup. Thecouplewaitedforeachotherfor21yearsinthe Amazon,IsabeldozensofmilesupstreamfromJean- Baptiste.TheyfinallymadeittoFrancetogetherin1773. TheGeodesicMissionremainsoneofthegreatest adventuresinhistory,evenifthescienceatitscoreseems ofonlypassinginteresttoday.Mr.Ferreiro’ssuperbbook makeseverymosquitobite,porkdinnerandsleepless nightseemworthit. Mr.Aczel’s“AStrangeWilderness:TheLivesofthe GreatMathematicians”willbepublishedinOctober. V : A16 Monday,June27,2011 REVIEW& OUT! Money-Market IV A midtheGreekmini-panicthismonth, ancethe didyounoticethereallyshocking lectmor news?Towit,U.S.regulatorsarewor- mentsfri ried about the “systemic risk”posedbytheexposure Onceagain,regulat offunAdmseritocanEumroonpeeya-nmarbkaentk missthesystemicrj debt. rightinfrontofthe That’sright,nearlythree years after the panic of h20o0w8,nooturfiaxleld-wseheaitngwraesgualragtuoarbslyhatvheessionmgel-e trreyfionrgmtbo biggestjustificationforgovernmentinter- transpai ventionatthetime.In2008,thefedsfelt thiscris: obligedtoguaranteeallmoney-fundassets encyprc aftertheylettheReservePrimaryfundpile houseu intobadLehmanBrotherspaper,Reserve swaps brokethe$1net-assetvalue,andinthefol- govemn lowingdayssome$400billionfledprime adefai moneyfunds.We’dhavethoughtourregula- worthle torywisemenwouldhavefixedthissystemic world’s riskbeforeallothers. nessmi Yetnowwelearnthatsince2008U.S. The moneyfundshavebeenallowedtopileinto thatha: Europeanbankdebtevenaseveryoneknew thingui thosebankshadstockeduponbadEuropean notto sovereignpaper.TheTreasuryisevensaying hadtog privatelythattheU.S.needstosupportthe without EuropeanbailoutofGreecelestEuropean against banksfail,U.S.fundstakebiglosses,andwe money getanotherflightfrommoneyfunds. thatthe Canthispossiblybehappening? toaccej Yes,andthistimeit’sanentireindustryas U.S. opposedtoaparticularfund.Halftheassets lem.In inU.S.primemoneymarketfundswerein- thatfur vestedinEuropeanbanksasoftheendof theiras May,accordingtoFitchRatings.Apparently, year,Tr ourregulatorsweretoobusywriting2,300 ingout pnaegwesruolfesDtooddn-otFircaentkhelaswysatnedmitchoriusskatnhdastoifs intedridannc< rightbeforetheireyes. onlyCo Theflightfrommoneyfundsin2008,and ofcris poofttehnetifailnlayncnioawl,shyisgthelmi:ghMtosnaekyeyfuvnuldnseararbeipleirt-y asfAusndf< ceivedasakintobanksavingsaccountsbe- anteev causetheyseemtobeallbutguaranteed ropeor againstloss,eventhoughtheyaren’t.Even inglya worse,theyemployacreativeaccounting workin techniquethatrewardsthefirstcustomersto safety heaTdhifsorintvheesteoxritcso.nditioningiscourtesyofa finucnldusdii: 1983SecuritiesandExchangeCommission count rulethatallowsmoneyfundstoreportasta- line.Co blenet-assetvalueof$1pershare,evenif cialSe: that’snotpreciselytruebasedonchangesin tookth thefund’sunderlyingassets.Theresultisthat investorshavecometoexpectthatmoney We’ fundsnever“breakthebuck,”neverdecline omnisc invalue.Italsomeansthatifbiginstitutions flawed noticethatafund’sunderlyingassetsstartto willdo decline,theyhaveastrongincentivetoget theyse outquicklywhiletheir99-centinvestmentis positio stillofficiallyvaluedat$1. Freddi WhentheReservefundbarelybrokethe debtac buckinSeptember2008,thatwasenoughfor money Washingtonregulatorstoslapaguarantee thethn amgoaniensytfluonsdsseshaodnntehveewrhpoaliedfionrdudsetproys,itthionsuugrh- tith’esthoooi SpendingHis Way 1 P residentObamaentersthedebt-ceiling spendi: talkstodaywhenhemeetswithmem- spiralc bersofbothparties,andinhisSaturday estpa; weeklyradioaddressheun- veiledanewlineofargument PresidentObam againstsignificantspending cuts:“Wecan’tsimplycut latesteconomicsle ourwaytoprosperity.” _____ That’saniftyrhetorical rwieff,caanp’ltatyaoxffoutrhewoalydtRoonpraolsdpeRreiatgy.anThlieneartghua-t ingIctaisn mtoeonmtainsythgaotoidfwtheicnugts—toliokemuedcuhcastpieonn,di“ncgleoann wthoautldit ndeneaenmrteg—ytt”hhreeaenedecxoa“nmaopdmlveyasnwchieilgdlhslmuiafgfnheurtf.eadcbtyurtihnegP,r”esti-o itcirreoosnwytdhie. Toobaditwon’tfly.It’satruismthatbud- atein getcutsalonewillnotguaranteefastereco- andSo( nomicgrowth,butatthecurrentmomentthey eralspe willgetusclosertoit.Withspendingat24% anteeir baontdhdmeobdtehrenldrbeycotrhdesp—utbhleicU.aSt.7n0ee%dosfdGraDsPti—c palreansspve\ The House at T heObamaAdministrationleakedword leader: lastThursdaythatMoammarGadhafi Inthis Tripoli,ist“hsoeurgiohuslhyowconwsiedering” quitting warsi know that without being TheGulfofSid tsprhoiovvseaertebeilagynnktpshaaphteartd.hseTthUoe.cSkT.erdneeauespduosrnytbiosaseduvpEepunorsroatpyetiahnneg nhwioattdhtotouotji]:j EuropeanbailoutofGreecelestEuropean against] bgeatnkasnofatihl,erU.fSl.ifghutndfsrotmakmeobnigeylosfsuensd,s.andwe mthoantetyhe1 Canthispossiblybehappening? toaccea Yes,andthistimeit’sanentireindustryas U.S.i oinppU.oSs.edprtiomaepmarotniecuylamrafruknedt.fHuanlfdsthweearseseitns- ltehamt.iIn| vestedinEuropeanbanksasoftheendof theiras May,accordingtoFitchRatings.Apparently, year,Tr ourregulatorsweretoobusywriting2,300 ingout1 pagesofDodd-Franklawandthousandsof itdidn<| newrulestonoticethesystemicriskthatis nerand rightbeforetheireyes. onlyCc Theflightfrommoneyfundsin2008,and ofcrisil potentiallynow,highlightsakeyvulnerability Asfd ofthefinancialsystem:Moneyfundsareper- asfund| ceivedasakintobanksavingsaccountsbe- antee1 causetheyseemtobeallbutguaranteed ropeorl againstloss,eventhoughtheyaren’t.Even inglyat worse,theyemployacreativeaccounting workinl techniquethatrewardsthefirstcustomersto safety headfortheexits. fundsi| Thisinvestorconditioningiscourtesyofa include 1983SecuritiesandExchangeCommission count rulethatallowsmoneyfundstoreportasta- line.Cc blenet-assetvalueof$1pershare,evenif cialSel that’snotpreciselytruebasedonchangesin tooktl thefund’sunderlyingassets.Theresultisthat investorshavecometoexpectthatmoney We’f fundsnever“breakthebuck,”neverdecline omniscl invalue.Italsomeansthatifbiginstitutions flawedI noticethatafund’sunderlyingassetsstartto willdol decline,theyhaveastrongincentivetoget theysel outquicklywhiletheir99-centinvestmentis positiol stillofficiallyvaluedat$1. Freddiq WhentheReservefundbarelybrokethe debtac buckinSeptember2008,thatwasenoughfor moneyl Washingtonregulatorstoslapaguarantee thethr againstlossesonthewholeindustry,though it’stooI moneyfundshadneverpaidfordepositinsur- thehoq SpendingHisWay PresidentObamaentersthedebt-ceiling spend! talkstodaywhenhemeetswithmem- spiral bersofbothparties,andinhisSaturday estpa; weeklyradioaddressheun- veiledanewlineofargument PresidentObamJ acugtasi:ns“tWseignciafni’ctanstismppelnydicnugt latesteconomicslei ourwaytoprosperity.” That’saniftyrhetorical rwieff,caanp’ltatyaoxffouthrewoalydRtoonparolsdpeRreiatgy.anThlieneartghua-t ingItcaisj mentisthatifwecuttoomuchspendingon thatitI teonoermgayn”yagnodod“atdhvianngcse—dlimkeaneudfucaacttiuorni,ng“,c”leatno wiroounlydi| namethreeexampleshighlightedbythePresi- tiesth| dent—theeconomywillsuffer. crowde getTcouotsbaadlointewownil’ltnfolyt.Igtu’saraatnrtueiesmfatshtaetrbeucdo-- aatnediSnc: nomicgrowth,butatthecurrentmomentthey eralspe wainldlgdeetbtusheclldosbeyrttoheit.puWbiltihcsatpe7n0d%inogfaGtD2P4—% apnltaenesi1r bothmodernrecords—theU.S.needsdrastic arespe The House al T heObamaAdministrationleakedword leaders! lastThursdaythatMoammarGadhafi Inthisf is “seriouslyconsidering” quitting warstfl Tripoli, though how we know that without being TheGulfofSidi aBwbualtsettahobaktoilulothstiaemlnltisattahiemoyussWtheliretyae.k Tirresol.ution.| House did to persuade HouseMemberstosupporttheLibyanmis- shutit sniootn.—wTihlletCaokelocnoemlfo—rftleferinogm,tahbeopuotlittiocafllesep,eoc-r uitssuaallleil taclethatensued. Presidd InonevoteFriday,theHouserejecteda front1| resolution,123to295,thatwouldhaveap- Only provedthecampaignagainstGadhafi.Some White1 70Democratsjoinedthevastmajorityofthe crats GOPcaucus—225—todefeattheresolution, Andoil whichmirrorsaSenatemeasuresponsored Preside bpuybJloichannM-lceCdaivontea,ndwhJiochhnwKoerurlyd.AhnaovtehceurtRoef-f fleeTthse‘j1 fundsforallmilitaryoperationsasidefrom willor supportserviceslikeintelligence,surveil- bloody lance,orsearchandrescue,alsowentdown thatthl 238to180. lutions TheWhiteHousedidn’tevenbothertoput eludetl outastatementclaimingvictory,andlittle more wonder.Thirty-sixDemocratsand144Repub- willgiv licansvotedforthedefundingbill,andit alsour wouldhavepassedhadnot89Republicans els,not] buckedtheirownparty.Bravotomostof interve those89,whodidn’tchangetheirwarprinci- Mr. piesbecauseaDemocratisintheWhite spend] House.Theexceptionwerethosewhovoted warhel nobecausetheysaidthefundingcut-off lie,anq didn’tgofarenough. dent SpeakerJohnBoehnersupportedthemea- ground surethoughhedidn’tvote,andsecondin dentif commandEricCantorandtherestoftheGOP aseve
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