An Encyclopedic Dictionary of MARXISM, SOCIALISM AND COMMUNISM: Economic, Philosophical, Political and Sociological Theories, Concepts, Institutions and Practices — Classical and Modern, East-West Relations Included

665 Pages·1981·90.44 MB·English

An Encyclopedic Dictionary of
MARXISM, SOCIALISM
AND COMMUNISM
Economic, Philosophical, Political and
Sociological Theories, Concepts, Institutions
and Practices - Classical and Modern,
East-West Relations Included
J. Wilczynski
Ph.D., D.Sc.
© J. Wilczynski, 1981
Softcover reprint of the hardcover 1st edition 1981 978-0-333-30689-5
All rights reserved. No part of this publication may be reproduced or transmitted, in
any form or by any means, without permission.
First published 1981 by
THE MACMILLAN PRESS LTD
London and Basingstoke
Associated companies throughout the world
ISBN 978-1-349-05808-2 ISBN 978-1-349-05806-8 (eBook)
DOI 10.1007/978-1-349-05806-8
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Preface
Marxism was originally conceived in the early 1840s and immediately became a
controversial body of doctrine, destined to lead to far-reaching intellectual,
social and political consequences. After Marx's publication of Capital vol. I in
1867, virtually all thought on fundamental social issues has been either in
support or in opposition to Marxist postulates and interpretations.
Precisely half a century later, the 'ten days that shook the world' resulted in
the first Marxist government being successfully installed in power in Russia. By
1980, the number of countries ruled by Marxist regimes had risen to 25 -
Afghanistan, Albania, Angola, Benin, Bulgaria, China (PR of), Congo, Cuba,
Czechoslovakia, Ethiopia, the German DR, Guinea-Bissau, Hungary, Kam
puchea (DPR of), Korea, Laos, Mongolia, Mozambique, Poland, Romania,
the Somali DR, the USSR, Vietnam (PDR of), the Yemen and Yugoslavia.
These countries now constitute more than one-third of the world. In addition,
there are some 100 Communist parties in the capitalist world, not to mention
an even larger number of socialist parties of one description or another.
The ideology ushered in by Marx and further developed by his followers has
been eulogized by some as 'the greatest conception in the world. It links world
wealth with world welfare' (G. Baker) and offers 'light in the darkness of a
depres~ed world; hope and opportunity for all people; economic ·wisdom,
political salvation, religious practice' (J. W. Bowen). But some others have
denounced it as 'a fake, a comedy, a phantom and a blackmail' (B. Mussolini)
and as 'the system which is workable only in heaven, where it is not needed, and
in hell, where they have got it' (C. Palmer). Whether one agrees with Marxist
ideas and Communist practices or not, one thing is certain - they are here to
stay and they are commanding increasing interest not only from their suppor
ters, but also from uncommitted observers as well as from enquiring critics.
This Dictionary provides a quick reference, explaining doctrines, terms and
phrases for the student of the social sciences and the educated or curious public.
The scope of the Dictionary is indicated by its sub-title. Non-Marxist theories
are also considered, if Marxists have a definite view on them. Modern practices
in the countries ruled by Marxist regimes are explained and all significant
Communist and socialist parties in the world are desCribed in detail appropriate
to their importance. Included are also personalities of significant theoretical
interest or major political consequence.
The author's aim is to be as objective as is humanly possible, in what is after
all the most controversial topic of our times. His task is to be informative and
neither propagandist nor destructively critical. But he does not hesitate, still in
the informative vein, to highlight the strengths and failings of Marxism,
especially in comparison with capitalism.
This Dictionary is a product of several years' work carried out at different
institutions. The author wishes in particular to thank the Central School of
Planning and Statistics, Warsaw, the University of Pittsburgh and Carleton
University, Ottawa, for financing or otherwise facilitating his research. He also
wishes to acknowledge the untiring assistance given to him by the National
Library of Australia and the Bridges Memorial Library of the Royal Military
College of Australia. He further wishes to express his appreciation to Mr Alex
Ikonnikov, of the Australian National University, for his valuable information
and helpful advice.
University ofN ew South Wales JOZEFWILCZYNSKI
at Duntroon, Canbe"a
A
Abnormal Surplus Value In Marx's Absenteeism Non-attendance at work
analysis of capitalist production, an ab caused by reasons which may be socially
stract concept denoting a kind of justified (sickness, reasonable personal
monopolistic super-normal profit. Due to circumstances, furlough) or not (laxity,
competition, the capitalist introduces in wilful absence). A. may be resorted to on
novations designed to increase the intensi an organized basis (especially in capitalist
ty of work and to reduce the INDISPENS countries) in the form of mass sickness
ABLE LABOUR-TIME, leading to a higher an industrial tactic where open strikes are
productivity of labour than in other rival not allowed by law, custom or professional
firms. A.s.v. is the main driving force be pride (police, teaching, government ser
hind technological progress under vice, and the like). The extent of a. ap
capitalism. pears to be roughly the same under social
ism as under capitalism. But, compared
Above-Compulsory Delivery Under AG with the West, there are certain distinctive
RICULTURAL PROCUREMENT, the sale of forces, operating in opposite directions.
products to the state over and above the On the one hand, there is a more generous
compulsory quota determined by the social security system, limited scope for
state. The a.-c.d. is voluntary and general spending incomes for private use, preval
ly attracts higher prices than those payable ent sellers' markets and longer standard
on COMPULSORY DELIVERIES, as an in working hours. On the other, there are
ducement to larger agricultural output lower income levels, workers' ownership
and a compensation for higher production of the means of production, workers' par
costs. ticipation in management and control,
state propaganda directed against laxity
Above-Plan Profit In a Socialist economy, and social irresponsibility, all of which are
profit achieved by the enterprise over and further enhanced by SOCIALIST COMPETI
above that laid down in the plan. A.-p.p. is TION. The Socialist state takes a very seri
largely due to the above-normal efforts of ous view of a., regarding it not merely as a
the enterprise personnel. As a rule, a private affair, but a matter of considerable
proportion larger than that of the PLAN social concern. A. reduces output, ad
NED PROFIT is allowed for the MATERIAL versely affects the achievement of targets,
INCENTIVES FUND. which may disrupt planned production
flows creating bottlenecks. As such, a.
Above-Plan Profit Rate In modern delays the advance to FULL COMMUNISM.
Socialist accounting, the achieved profit In each Socialist country, the labour code
rate which actually exceeds the PLANNED provides for penalties for unjustified a.,
PROFIT RATE. It amounts to the over viz. a warning, reprimand, transfer to a
fulfilment of the planned target and usual less important job, demotion, fines, dis
ly qualifies the enterprise personnel to missal and in some extreme cases, correc
additional bonuses on a progressive basis. tive labour camps.
1
Absentee Ownership
Absentee Ownenhip The ownership of dally legitimate or not. In effect, the allo
income-yielding property (land, buildings cation of resources is basically shaped
or business firms, including shares) where by consumers through their spending
the owner does not reside or work. A.o. power. A.c.s. was typical of laissez-faire
has traditionally been identified with land, capitalism where the extent of monopoly
when historically, the owner would reside was small and the state refrained from
in the nearby town, a distant city or ab intervening in the economy. Marxists are
road. The land was farmed by peasants or opposed to a.c.s., as some consumer's pre
tenants paying rent in one form or another ferences are irrational leading to ANTI
which was administered by a professional SOCIAL CONSUMPTION and could inter
hired manager. In Latin America approxi fere with the planned utilization of
mately nine-tenths of the large landlords resources. See RATIONALIZED CONSUM
are a. owners. Since the end of the 19th c. ERS' SOVEREIGNTY.
another type of a.o. became an important
feature in mining, industry, commerce, Absolute Equalitarianism The extreme
fiqance, transport and other services. form of equality amongst pe,rsons advo
Here firms or large shareholdings are cated by some social reformers, especially
owned by proprietors or dominant utopian socialists, Left Communists and
shareholders, but otherwise such entities impatient radical revolutionaries. On the
are operated by professional salaried whole, Marxism rejects a.e. as unwork
managers. A.o. has been subject to bitter able and socially detrimental. Stalin dis
attacks by Marxists for the following missed it as a 'petty bourgeois deviation'
reasons: 1. a. owners are idle capitalists, in his famous Uravnilovka Speech in
usually receiving high property incomes in 1931. The principle was widely discussed
the form of rent, interest, profits or di in China, especially during the GREAT
vidends; 2. such non-labour incomes con PROLETARIAN CULTURAL REVOLUTION,
stitute the exploitation of those who oper when several efforts were made towards
ate the means of production, i.e. the work a.e. Mao Tse-tung had changing views on
ers who are the real producers and a.e., but finally he publicly condemned it
creators of value; 3. under a. land owner in 1972 by reference to practices in the
ship, whilst income is produced in agricul PEOPLE'S LIBERATION ARMY (in 'On Ab
ture it is spent largely in other branches of solute Equalitarianism', embodied in Five
the economy (or abroad), thereby depres Articles). It is widely agreed amongst
sing agricultural investment and progress; Marxists that even under full communism
and 4. the a. proprietors or shareholders distribution will not be completely
are interested in maximum income for egalitarian, but 'according to needs'
themselves, not in the conditions of work (which implies differences from one per
and production, resulting in the neglect of son to another).
the latter. However, it may be pointed out
here that the extent and abuses of a.o. Absolute Ethics The field of ETHICS con
have been somewhat reduced since W .W.I cerned with immutable and eternal moral
by land reforms, heavy death duties and standards, which are considered to be uni
other taxes, nationalization, industrial versal, irrespective of society's geographi
legislation and other forms of state inter cal, political and social environment and
vention. historical development. The founder of
a.e. was H. Spencer (1820-1903), who
Absolute Consumer's Sovereignty An distinguished it from RELATIVE E. Marxist
economic regime where the 'consumer is philosophers reject a.e., regarding it as a
absolute king'. It prevails where all logical product of IDEALISM. They insist
economic activities are basically induced that there is no such thing as a completely
by, and geared to, consumers' prefer neutral morality independent of the ma
ences, whether such preferences are so- terial and social conditions of life, as ethi-
2
Academic Socialism
cal standards vary geographically, socially Abstract Art A movement in painting,
and historically, reflecting the interests of sculpture and graphics which originated in
different social groups. the West in the early part of the twentieth
c. It emphasizes individual feeling, sym
Absolute Rent In a Marxian application to bolism, escapism and utilitarianism and is
the capitalist economy, a form of GROUND opposed to any form of regimentation. It
RENT appropriated by the landowner. As is also known as abstractionism, non
such, it is an element of SURPLUS vALUE objective art or non-representational art.
representing the exploitation of agricul Some of its supporters have hoped to in
tural workers, tenants and consumers of fluence Socialist art by offering it greater
agricultural products. A.r., as distinct freedom, originality and variety. On the
from DIFFERENTIAL RENT, arises from the whole, the Socialist countries have offi
monopolistic private ownership of land cially repudiated a.a. as being subjectivist,
and from a lower ORGANIC STRUCTURE OF egotistic, anarchical and reactionary. See
CAPITAL in agriculture than in industry CUBISM, EXPRESSIONISM, FUTURISM.
(i.e. amounting to under-capitalization in
the former). Consequently, the value of
agricultural products is higher than their Abstract Labour Marxian term for labour
performed in general. It is the productive
cost of production. The difference be
expenditure of human energy leading to
tween the two indicates the size of the a.r.
the creation of value, irrespective of its
Under socialism, as a rule, a.r. does not
occur, but where it does it is generally concrete form. As such, it is the common
absorbed by the state. indicator of value constituting SOCIAL
LABOUR and contrasts with CONCRETE
Absolute Surplus Value In Marx's an LABOUR.
alysis of capitalist production, value
created by SURPLUS LABOUR, i.e. value Abstraction The process of reasoning con
which is produced by the worker as a sisting in the identification of essential
consequence of the lengthening of the features of objects or phenomena and
working day and the intensification of their relations and the formulation of
labour beyond the INDISPENSABLE generalizations, laws and theories. It is
LABOUR-TIME (necessary to support the important to distinguish between the
worker and his family at subsistence
idealist (bourgeois) and materialist
level). It contrasts with the RELATIVE (Marxist) conception of a. Although
SURPLUS VALUE. Marxists recognize the cognitive and sci
entific value of a., they point to its poten
Absolute Truth In philosophy, truth that
tial misuse on philosophical grounds.
is indisputable and cannot be invalidated.
They oppose ascribing an independent
In METAPHYSICS, true knowledge is re
real existence to characteristics, relations
garded as eternal and immutable and con
and generalizations arrived at in the pro
sequently all truth, if it is truth, is absolute.
cess of a. This in turn would lead to idealist
The Marxist approach is different. It views
the establishment of truth as a dynamic philosophy (IDEALISM) and supernatural
religious beliefs. A. may also involve an
and historical process whereby the nature
unrealistic divorce from reality, leading to
of truth differs according to historical cir
cumstances. Thus, normally, truth is rela FORMALISM and sterile speculation, incap
able of dealing with social realities.
tive and only in the ultimate phase of
perfection does it become absolute. Marx
ist philosophers reject the idealist and Academic Socialism A term disparagingly
metaphysical interpretation of truth, re used by revolutionary Marxists to describe
garding it as unscientific and an attempt the mild version of socialism advocated by
to replace science with FIDEISM and RE intellectuals from the safety and comfort
LIGION. See also OBJECTIVE TRUTH. of their academic positions. It is also
3
Academy of Social Sciences
known as 'armchair socialism' or 'social assets in the sphere of MATERIAL PRODUC
ism ex-cathedra'. A.s. emphasizes theory TION; (ii) the stock of added fixed assets in
rather than action and ethics rather the NON-PRODUCTIVE SPHERE; (iii) net ad
than practice. A.s. was originally identi dition to the stock of circulating assets in
fied with the ideas propagated in the process of production; (iv) net addi
Germany in the second half of the tion to reserves (held idle as an insurance
nineteenth century by such thinkers as against unexpected contingencies); and
B. Hildebrandt (1812-78), W. Som (v) the foreign trade balance. In a Socialist
bart (1863-1941) and A. Wagner economy a. is placed on a planned basis
(1835-1917). They argued that socialism and great importance is attached to a high
could be evolved gradually via peaceful ACCUMULATION RATE.
reforms from above without either a class
war or violent revolution, utilizing the Accumulation Rate The percentage ratio
state as an initiating and unifying force. K. of ACCUMULATION (A) totheNETMATER
Marx attacked a.s. (in Critique of the IALPRODUCT (NMP): a.r. = A/NMP.100.
Gotha Programme) as too timid and too Depending on whether depreciation is de
slow. To some extent, a.s. has found sup ducted or not from accumulation, the a. r.
port in ECONOMISM, FABIANISM, LEGAL can be calculated on a net or gross basis,
MARXISM, EUROCOMMUNISM, and RE the former being the commonly implied
VISIONISM. rate. The a.r. is determined at the top
political level and is quite high, typically in
Academy of Social Sciences The highest
the range of 15-30 per cent (higher than
institution of party education in the would be the case under capitalism at the
USSR. It is located in Moscow, is attached same stage of economic development). In
to the Central Committee of the Com the traditional Socialist view, steeped in
munist Party of the Soviet Union and was the EXTENSIVE GROWTH strategy, the level
established in 1946 as an indirect succes of a.r. determines the rate of ECONOMIC
sor to the INSTITUTE OF RED PROFESSOR GROWTH.
SHIP. It admits only graduate students with
experience in party, trade union or gov Action Programme A short name for the
ernment work on the recommendation of 'Action Programme of the Communist
higher regional party authorities. Its func Party of Czechoslovakia'. It was a scheme
tion is to train ideologically reliable for far-reaching economic reforms
specialists in history, philosophy, politics, adopted by the Central Committee of the
political economy, literature, journalism, Communist Party in April 1968. But it
art, international relations and the criti was never implemented, owing to the
que of capitalism. The course involves a military intervention by the Warsaw Pact
thesis leading to the degree of Candidate countries (INVASION OF CZECHO
of Science (corresponding to Ph.D.) which SLOVAKIA) and the dismissal of the liberal
the Academy is empowered to award. Communist government. Designed by
Ota Sik (Deputy Prime Minister at the
Accounting Prices See SHADOW PRICES.
time), it aimed to establish a 'New
Accumulation The term used in Socialist Economic Model', a type of MARKET
national income accounting, correspond SOCIALISM in Czechoslovakia. Its main
ing to the Western concept of investment elements were: the decentralization of
in its broadest sense. It is that part of planning and management; the
national income which is produced but not strengthening of material incentives; the
consumed during the year in question (A predominantly free market formation of
= NY - C).lts main purpose is to increase wholesale and retail prices; competition;
the productive capacity of the economy. the self-financing of enterprises and the
According to the official classification, a. liberalization of external economic rela
consists of: (i) the stock of added fixed tions.
4
Aesthetics
Activist A person who is active in assisting changes in demand, create bottlenecks
the implementation of the party policies and disrupt the economic plan. However,
on a voluntary basis. His activities may be since the mid-1960s, the European
carried on in a political association, an Socialist countries have adopted a some
educational institution, a cultural society, what more positive attitude to a., as it is
a sporting club or some other social organ realized that a. can perform two useful
ization. functions in a planned economy: 1. con
sumers are able to make more advantage
Added Product In Socialist national in ous decisions in spending their income,
come accounting, another (less commonly thereby increasing satisfaction from a
used) term for SURPLUS PRODUCT. given level of income; and 2. judiciously
state-conducted persuasive a. can be used
'Adresnost' A Russian term which has no as an instrument of 'consumer education'
exact equivalent in English, used in and CONSUMPTION STEERING. Here con
economic planning to describe the fact sumers' preferences are adapted to the
that a planned TARGET is specifically 'ad socially desired planned patterns of pro
dressed' to an entity or a group of entities duction on the one hand, and to the easy
in an explicitly defined class for im disposal of unwanted stocks of goods on
plementation. the other, thereby rectifying planners' er
rors. A. of a kind is also utilized on a
Advertising The application of mass systematic and comprehensive basis in the
media (press, posters, leaflets, radio, tele form of PROPAGANDA.
vision, cinema) by sellers or their agents to
influence potential buyers' preferences as AeroBotThe state owned and only Soviet
a method of sales promotion. A. can be airline in the country and which is also the
informative or persuasive. It reaches its largest in the world. It was founded in
highest development and influence in in 1923 and has experienced an impressive
dustrialized capitalist countries which are development, especially since 1970. In
noted for BUYERS' MARKETS, COMPETI 1978 it operated flights to 3,600 cities and
TION and private profit motivation. In settlements in the USSR, 80 cities in
Marxist political economy a. is considered foreign countries, covered over 850,000
to be largely a waste of resources in the km of domestic and international air
social sense, and moreover, a. agencies are routes, carried 110m passengers, handled
classed as non-productive entities since one quarter of all air cargo in the world
they do not contribute to MATERIAL PRO and treated lOOm sq. hectares of agricul
DUCTION. Marxists see a. in a capitalist tural land by aero-chemical methods. It
market economy as an attempt to over performs more than 100 types of avionic
come the inherent weakness of capital uses in the national economy.
ism's tendency toward over-production in
relation to demand, i.e. the insufficiency AES In Russian, the abbreviation for
of the spending power at the disposal of Atomnaya Elektrostantsiya, meaning
the masses to absorb all the output. A. is atomic power station.
motivated by private greed and is often
designed to mislead the public, to elimi Aesthetics The theory of art concerned
nate rival firms and to establish and de with the criteria, characteristics and types
fend monopoly. In Socialist planned of beauty in nature and man-made ob
economies, a. is largely pointless and jects. Ae. has been one of the fields of
could be considered harmful. There is no controversy between materialist
lack of demand, for demand tends to out (MATERIALISM) and idealist (IDEALISM)
run supply, as is evident in the number of approaches to art. This is exemplified by
prevalent SELLERS' MARKETS. But more the attacks by V. G. Belinsky (1811-48),
importantly, a. could lead to unplanned N. G. Chernyshevsky (1828-89), N. A.
5