An Archaeologist's Guide to Mining Terminology - Ashadocs.org

27 Pages·2007·8.73 MB·English

AUSTRALASIAN HISTORICAL ARCHAEOLOGY, I5, I997
An Archaeologist'sG uidet o Mining Terminology
Ited
5as NEVILLEA. RITCHIEAND RAY HOOKER
ing
Iter
the
The authors present a glossary of mining terminology commonly used in Australia and New Zealand. The
npl
definitions and useagesc omef rom historical and contemporary sources and consideration is given to those
most frequently encounteredb y archaeologists. The terms relate to alluvial mining, hard rock mining, ore
rlll9 processing,a nd coal mining.
rng.
the
\on
Therea re literally thousandso f scientifica nd technicatl erms resultanmt odifiedl andformsa nd relicsw hich arel ikely to be
rnd
,of which have been coined to describev ariousa spectso f the encounteredb y or to be of relevancet o field archaeologists
mininga nd processingo f metalliferousa ndn on-metallico res. working in mining regionsp articularlyi n New Zealandb ut
1,ra S
Manyt ermsh avea wide varietyo f acceptedm eaningso, r their also in the wider AustralasiaS. ignificante xamplesr,e gional
M.
meaningsh avec hangedo ver time. Othert ermsw hich usedt o variantst,h e dateo f introductiono f technologicailn novations,
:of
trrng be widely used( e.g.t hosea ssociatewd ith sluice-mininga) re and specificallyN ew 7na\andu sagesa re also noted.R elated
Ito seldom used today. The use of some terms is limited to terms and terms which are defined elsewherei n the text are
nial restrictedm ining localities (often arising from Comish or printedi n italics.
other ethnic mining slang),o r they are usedi n a senset hat
While many of the terms will be familiar to Australian
differsf rom then orm;f or instanceH, endersonn oteda number
ella archaeologistst,h e authorsh ave not specificallye xamined'
of local variantsw hile working in minesa t Reeftono n the
v)7 Australian historical mining literature nor attempted to
WestC oasto f New T.ealand.l
incorporateth e numerouste rmsa ssociatewd ith Comish-type
nla.
3ln In the nineteenthc entury mining engineeringw as a mining and copper refining in Australia.A n unpublished
t.D. particularlyi nnovativef ield, especiallyw ith regard to ore glossaryo f theset ermsb y JackC onnella nd someo theru seful
rtit 1' treatmentsa nd processingm achinery.T he more innovative Australianm ining referencesa re cited in the bibliography.2
nial mining companiesu pgradedt heir plant periodically,w hile Although manganesea nd copper mining in New Zealand( on
:s of othersp erseveredw ith outmodede quipmenta nd systemso r Kawau Island c.1841-1842) predatesa ny other form of
stuckw ith techniquesw hich were in voguew hen their plant mining,b y any standardist wass malls calea ndn everl ikely to
la\ e was establishedR. esearchfo r this glossaryh as highlighted amountt o muchb ecauseo f thes malls izeo f theo reb odiest,h e
the regionadl ifferencesin miningt echnologya ndt echniques. distanceto marketsa, ndp roblemsa ssociatewd ith smeltingt he
.1me The following lists haveb eenc ompiledb y the authorst o ore.
tom assist archaeologists( especially those involved in site
TERMSA SSOCIATED
itint recordingt)o :
WITH ALLUVIAL MINING
. recognise physical features and often long obsolete
-,rait
machineryc omponentos n historicm inings ites; alluvial gold: gold found in alluvium,i e riverineo r estuarine
help
. encourageth e use of establishedo r well-definedt ermst o depositso f sando r gravel.A lluvial denotest he materialh as
:rn-q.
accuratelyd escribem achinerya nd site featurest o avoid beenw asheda nd transportedb y water.
:as s.
|\\ s confusion; amalgamatingt ables:r eferp rocessingse ction.
ione . enablet he more accuratein terpretiono f mining methods auriferous:h avingg old content.
from the survivingf ield evidence;
banjo/banjoing: (the term banjo is also applied to a short
iCE . facilitatem orea ccuratec odingo f minings itet ypesf or the handleds hovel)T his methodo f alluvial goldminingw asu sed
{lme purposeso f comparativea nalysis and research,a nd extensivelyo n the Hill End and Tambaroorafi elds in New
v)7 management;
South Wales.3T he method involves the excavationo f a
. assist in understandingt erms frequently cited in circular hole in a creek bank into which washdirt is
contemporarmy iningl iterature. stockpiledr eadyf or washing.N ext a trenchw asd ug between
The cited terms are restrictedt o physical featureso r the stockpiling-holea nd the creek (or water-hole).T his
machinerya ssociatewd ith mining,i e potentiaal rchaeological createda banjo-likef eature,h encet he derivationo f the term.
featuresF. or conveniencet,h ey haveb eena llocatedin to four The stockpiling hole was always dug at a slightly higher
groupsv, iz. termsa ssociatewd ith: elevationt han the trench.T he latter was lined with rocks or
houseda wooden sluice box. The method of washinga nd
l. alluvialm ininga nda ssociatetde chnologya ndl andforms;
recoveringg old involvedu singa gold pana sa ladlet o splash
2. hardr ock mininga nda ssociatetde chnology;
wateru p the trencha ndi nto the stockpilet o washs omeo f the
3. orep rocessingo r processingm achinery; washdirt down the trench. In practicet he lighter dirt was
4. termss pecificallya ssociatewd ith coalm ining. supposedt o be carried down into the waterholeo r stream
while the heavierg old was trappedi n the stoneso r in' the
Some equipmenta nd techniquesa re common to both
sluice-boxl aid in the trench.D espitet he presenceo f many
alluvial (particularlyd eepl ead)a nd hardr ock mining.T hese
Australianm inersi n New Zealandd uring the first goldrushes
includei temsa ssociatewd ith tunnellingw, aters upply,m otive
in Otago, banjoing is not mentionedi n the New Zealand
power,a nd ore crush"inga nd treatmenlT. hey reflect similar
meanso f overcomingc ommonp roblemsW. here termsh ave mining literaturea nd any field evidenceo f it has long since
disappeared.
multiplem eaningsa nda rea ssociatewd ith differenta spectso f
mining,e .g.t ailings,t heya rec ited,w herea ppropriatein, each beachl ead:c oncentratioonf fine gold in old marines ediments
isof group; otherwise they are cited in the category they most (usuallyc onsolidateda ndb uried).B eachl eadsa reo ften some
specificallyr efer to. The authorsh avea ttemptedto cover all distancefr om moderns horelinesa nd at differenth eights( see
the termsa ssociatewd ith mining and ore-processinga,n d the bLacksanding).
Fig. 1: A portable gold table being used
Jbr b lack sa nding at Ch a r les nwn, Wes r
Coast, South Island, New Zealand. Note
the woodenf lumes in the background
(D ep a rtmen t of Co n se r v ati on col le cti on,
Westland).
bedrock:i n alluvialm iningp arlancet,h eh ardr ock underlying claim: an area of land which has been peggeda nd legally
alluvium.O ftent her ichesta uriferousd epositsw erel ocatedo n assignedto a minero r mining company( by virtueo f a license
the alluvium/bedrocki nterface. or miner'sr ight) to work for a specifiedp eriod.A claim was
blacksanding: a form of mining restrictedt o the WestC oasto f generallys mallera nd cheaperb ut less securet han a mining
the South Island. Blacksand mining (blacksanding) lease.
commencedb elatedlyw hen it was realisedt hat the extensive cleaningu p: seew ashingu p.
black magnetici ronsandb eacheso f the WestC oastc ontained cradle: a simpleb ut effectivem anuallyo peratedd eviceu sed !
rich depositso f fine gold (often in beachl eads).T he presence by diggers to separateg old from washdirt by meanso f a I
of gold in worthwhile quantities within sea-beachesis {
rocking motion. Cradlesw ere an advanceo n the basic gold
relatively uncommon on a worldwide level. Blacksanders pan (seep anning) andw ere much fastert o uset han a pan.
oftene mploys mallw heeleds luiceb oxesw hich canb e readily
moveda longa beach( Fig. I ). SeeH ookerf or description.a crevicing: the recovery of gold, usually by picking and
scraping,f rom crevicesi n bedrock or the induratedb aseso f
blasting: in some hydraulic claims, a small tunnel was
streamb eds.
excavateda t the baseo f a work face and a number of kegs of
powder introduced and ignited. The resultant blast was dam (mining dam): a structureo f earth,m asonryc, oncreteo r a
intended to loosen the washdirt and save a considerable timberb uilt acrossa watercoursteo impondw ater,u suallyf or :
amounto f waterw hich would otherwiseb e requiredt o break alluvial mining purposess uch as hydraulic sluicing. As
down the face.B lastingw as principallye mployedd uring dry opposedt o reservoirsw hich are water storagesc reatedb y
either excavatinga depressiono r by erectinga n earthen, I
seasonos r in dry locationst o savew aterb ecausem uch more
wooden, concreteo r masonry structureu sually on a flat I
waterw as requiredf or breakingd own bankst hanf or washing
terraceI.n comingw aterw asu suallyf ed in by waterr aces,a nd
the freedd irt.
deliveredto work sitesb y eitherr aceso r piping.I n practicei,n
blocking out: removingw ashdirtb y driving or shaftingd own New Zealand at least, there was virtually no distinction
to a leada nde xcavatinga gallery( whichw asu suallyt imbered
between dams and reservoirs. Wardens Courts were
up and large stoness tackedt o supportt he roof).
responsiblefo r issuingd am licensesw hich encompasseadn y
bonanza( jeweller'ss ftop):s malla lluvial leads( or patcheso f structuref or storing water for mining purposesR. eservoirs
ore)o f exceptionarli chness. tendst o be usedf or the storageo f potablew aters upplies.
bottom: an induratedl ayer below an auriferous alluvial deadm an (holdfast):a log or similarlys hapedo bjectu sedf or
deposit.O ften the bottom and bedrock are one and the same anchoringo r manipulatingg old dredgesin riverso r ponds,o r
(seefalseb ottom). in tenestrial situationsf or manoeuvringd evices such as
bucket elevator: a manually operatedo r more typically winches or cranes used for shifting large boulders (they
poweredc ontinuousc haino fbucketsu sedt o raisew ashdirtf or probably had many other applicationso n the goldfields).
further processing. 'Dead men' were usuallyb uriedi n a trencha t right anglest o
the direction of pull, in locations where there were no
California pump: in their simplestf orm Califomia pumps
convenientlys itedt reeso r bouldersw hich could be usedf or
consisto f an elongatedw oodent rougha longw hich a canvas,
the samep urpose.
rope,o r leatherb eltc ouldr evolveb etweentw o woodenw heels
at either end of the box. Tight-fitting wooden slats were deep leads: ancienta lluvial depositso ften buriedb eneatha
attachedto the belt.W hen the lower end of the appliancew as considerablet hicknesso f non-auriferouss trata. They are
placedi n watera nda crankh andlea ttachedto theu pperw heel usually worked by sinking a shaft from which tunnelsa re
was tumedm anuallyw, aterw ase levatedfr om the lower level driveno nto the leads( seeh ardr ock miningd efinition).
andd ischargedin to a flume at the uppere ndo f the pump.T he ditch: seer ace. 1
term is alsou sedt o describea pumpm adeo f tin cansa ttached dredgingp lanl usuallyu sedi n referenceto plantsd esignedto .tt
to an endlessb elt,i e a crudeb uckete levator. recoverg old-richt ailings( the dischargefr om mine batteries) I
cement: a tough conglomerate composed of rounded or which havea ccumulateidn rivers.h arbourse. stuariees tc.T he 1
:
angularf ragmentso f rock and black sandc ementedb y iron plants combine two different gold recovery technologies,
oxide. The gold was usuallyf reed from the cementb y first alluvial dredging (bucket or suction) to recover tailings :
crushingit in a battery. dischargedin to the waterwaysf rom upstreamq uartz batteries,
i\
sad l Fig.2: Cutaway view of gold dredge
\- (Peele1 94I :579).
J'
ole
V*''/"
kntlh c to ( ol Llr t&u.rrJ'
atll and hard rock gold recovery treatmentsn, otably the cyanide gauge box: a woodeno r steelv ertically sliding plate which
:n5e processt,o recovert he bullion from the dredgedt ailings.F our enabled( by specificp ositioningo f the plate)a measuredfl ow
rIas dredging plants have operated in New Zr,aland, Judd's at of water to be directed from a supply race into a claim head
ring Thames,a small operationa t Coromandel,a nd the two gold race( seeh ead).
dredgingo perationsin the North Islando n the OhinemuriR iver
gold dredge:v essels(c onsistingo f one or morep ontoonso) n
(OhinemurRi iverS yndicate'sa,n dt heW aihi-PaeroEax traction
which variousf orms of dredginge quipmentw erem ountedi n
Co.). The site of the laner, the fifth largestp roducero n the
order to extract auriferous gravels from river beds, and later
rsed Ohinemurfii eld,h asc onsiderablien terpretatiopno tential.
river marginsa ndt erraces(F ig. 2).s
)fa
drift/drifting: loose alluvial material.M ining into it was - spoon dredges: floating platforms on which a large
lold calledd rifting (seeh ard rock mining definition). 'spoon'( composedo f a steelh oopa nda rawhideb ag)w as
dr-v--blowinga: w ay of separatinggr ainso f alluvialg old from mountedT. he spoon( laterm adew ith a strengtheneldip to
and
sando n aridA ustraliang oldfieldsT. he dirt was droppedf rom provide a better cutting edge) was attachedt o a pivoted
sof
a height,e nablingt he wind to blow awayt he lighterd ust but arm which wasl oweredi nto thew atert o scoopu p a loado f
not theh eavierg old particles. the basalg ravels,t hen winched back on to the dredge.
tor elevator pond: (see hydraulic elevating) the depression - cunent wheeler: small dredgesw hich employedp addle-
for remaining( usuallyw ater-filled)fo llowingh ydraulico r bucket wheelst o tum an endlessc hain of bucketsF. irst usedo n
.1J elevatin-q. the Molyneux( Clutha)i n 1868.A s currentw heelersw ere
:b)
face:t hew ork facei n an alluvialc laim. restricted to locations where there was a strons current
lren.
flat false bottom: a consolidateda nd usually non-auriferous they were soons uperseded.
and stratumo n which alluvialg old is concentratedb,e neathw hich - suction dredges:a lthoughs uctioni s an effectivem eanso f
:- in therei s oneo r morel ower bedso f washdirt,t he lowestb eing dredging fine material, suction dredgesg enerally proved
tion thet rueb ottom. unsuccessfulo n the goldfields; the suction pipes
! ere flume/fluming: woodenc hannellingu sed in conjunctionw ith continually clogged with stones,a nd the high specific
an)' \\'aterr acest o conveyw atert o a claim.T ypicallyf luming built gravity of gold often resulted in everything but the gold
oirs on wooden trestles was used to span depressionso r was being lifted. Suctiond redgingo n sea-beachc laims also
anchoredto rock facest o bypasss heers lopes.I n the absenceo f provedt o be inefficient, becausein variablyt herew ase ither
I for plentifult imbert o buildf lumingt o bridgeg ullies( e.g.i n Central too much sando r too much water.
ior Otago),w aterr aceb uildersw ere obligedt o go the long way, ie - steam-powered,c ontinuous bucket dredges: the first
AS follow theh illsidec ontoursto maintainh eight( sees iphon). steam-powered (self-powered) bucket dredge, the
tte) fly-catching/fly-catcherst:h e placing of gold-tablesin the Dunedin, began operating on the Clutha River near
ds). bed of a streamb elow the outfall from a sludgec hannelI.t is Alexandra in 1881. It proved far superior in terms of
)tO estimatedt hat no more than 60 per cent of the gold was gravel extraction and gold recovery.T he type soon
no capturedb y claim owners,s ome4 Op erc ente scapingw ith the becamet he mainstayo f the industryh ere and overseas.
for tailings dischargedd own sludge channels.M uch of the Steam-poweredd redgesw ere able to work into river
escapingg old was caught in thef ly-catchers.R estrictedt o banks, greatly expanding the scope of dredging
fia ancient beach-leadw orking areaso n the West Coast, e.g. operationsT. he developmenot f the steam-powerebdu cket
are CharlestonA, ddison'sF lat. gold dredge is recogniseda s New Zealand'sg reatest
are fool's gold: iron sulphide( pyrites)c ommonlyf ound in quartz, contribution to alluvial gold winning technology (see
coal measureas nd alteredr ocks.O ften mistakenf or gold by tailings elevator).
the uninitiatedi,t is virtually valuelessI.n the pasti t hasb een - electric-powered bucket dredges: a later development;
,l to useda sa sourceo f sulphur. essentiallyt he same gold recovery technologya s the
ies) fork/stonef orks: therew eret wo main types:a long-handled steam-powereddr edges,b ut electricalp ower enabledt he
The multi-prongedfo rk was usedt o clear stoneso ut of tailrace constructiono f more powerful dredgesa nd considerably
tes. boxing,w hile a sturdyt wo-prongedfo rk with the tinesb enta t lowered operating costs. The first electrically driven
lngs right anglest o the handle was used to clear stonesf rom dredgew as establishedo n a claim in the upperS hotover
ries. tailraces. River,O tago,i n 1894b y the SandhillsG oldminingC o.
wotersource
stuiceb ox
toitings
Fig.3: Simplified diagram oJ'a hydraulic
elevutor in operation (Ritchie 1986).
l50m
elevotorh ole
-,
- water-powered bucket dredges (hydraulic dredges): at St Bathans.T he large bouldersc ommon in West Coast
generallyu sedt o described redgeso n to which water was fluvio-glacialg ravelsw ere more than most elevatorsc ould
piped aboard and used to drive Pelton wheels to power cope with, althoughh ydraulice levatingw as also used to a
machinery including the excavatingb uckets.T he lack of limited extent on the West Coast beaches( see Ritchie for
sufficientw ater power (head or fall) limited the use of descriptiono f field evidenceo f elevatingi n the UpperC lutha
hydraulicd redgesa, lthought hey wereu sede xtensivelyin area).7
some areas,e .g., Waipori and Cardrona. Some dredges hydraulicking (hydraulic sluicing): a mining techniquei n
combineds luicing and mechanicael xcavatingt o enable which a jet of wateri s directeda gainsta n alluvial depositt o
themt o progressin to alluviald eposits.
breaki t down.T he method,d evelopedin Californiai n 1852,
gold tables: broad slightly inclined flat tables( often mounted was introducedi nto New Zealand by Califomian diggers
on wheels)c overedw ith plush( matting)o verw hich fine gold initially using canvash oses.T he introductiono f steelp ipes
bearingb eachs andsw ere washedt o recovert he gold content. (madef rom riveteds ectionsa) ndc asti ron monitors( moveable
ground sluicing: a basicm ethodo f alluvial mining whereby nozzles) in the 1870s lead to high pressure sluicing
auriferoust erracem arginsw ere brokend own by directing low supersedingth e earlier method.T he methodd id away with
pressurew ater over them (free running water divertedf rom a mucho f the pick and shovelw ork involvedi n grounds luicing
headracet)o assistt heir breakingu p with bar and pick. The and was the only practicalm eanso f mining deep deposits.
dislodged materal was then sluiced, ie directed through Hydraulic sluice workingsu sually have steepw orking faces
channelst o sluice-boxesin which the gold was trappedi n (comparedto grounds luicing)b ecauseth e waterw asd irected
riffles. upslopet o underminet he work faces.
gutters: incised ancient streamc hannelsi n bedrock or older iron pipes:f irst usedi n California,t heyr apidlys upercedetdh e
alluviumw hich tendt o trapa ndc oncentratael luvialg old into canvash osesu sed prior to that.8I n 18 56 a San Francisco
distinctl eadsa ndc onsequentlpyr ovider ich pickings.G utters companyc ommencedt he manufactureo f wrought iron pipes
usuallyu nderliela tera lluviald eposits. for hydraulicm ining,s o their usew asw ell establishepdr ior to
the onseto f sluicing( c.1870)o n the New T,ealandg oldfields.
head: a measureo f waterf low and volume.W hen water was
sold to claimholders,a chargew as madea t so much a headf or Graduallya whole rangeo f pipe sectionse, lbows( bends)a nd
so many hours. A head was approximately I cubic foot per associatecdo mponentse,. g. gatev alves,w ered evelopedT. he
second( cusec)a nd was measuredb y an outlet gate of specific pipe sectionsc ouldb e hot rivetedi nto standardle ngths( hence
size (seeg augeb ox) at the point wherea branchr acet o a claim the presenceo f a smithy on many alluvial claims),a nd each
unitjoinedb y connectingfl anges.
dreww aterf rom a mains upplyr ace.A racemanw ase mployed
on main supply racest o tum water on (ie divert water) to koura: Maori term for gold. A transliterationo f the English
specificc laims as required,t o patrol the systeml ooking for term.
any defectsa nd to undertaker epairs. lead: (pronouncedl eed) a well-definedb ed of auriferous
hurdy-gurdy wheel: similar in appearancea nd operationt o a wash-dirtin a terraceo r streamb ed.
Peltonw heelo r similari mpactw heel.T he term is sometimes long tom: essentiallya trough (sluice box) for washingt he
useds ynonymouslyi n referencet o Peltonw heels.T he original gold from auriferousg ravels,f irst usedi n Califomia in 1850.
hurdy-gurdy wheels had flat buckets cast into the Theyw eret hen exts tepu p from a cradlee nablingt hew orking
circumferenceo f the wheel.T hey wered esignedf or using high of largerc laimsa nd a betterr ecoveryp ercentageT.h ey were
head pressuresL. arge hurdy-gurdyw heelsw ere sometimes usuallyw orkedb y two men.W ashdirtw as shovelledin to an
connectedt hrough gearing to derrick-hoistsa nd used to lift inclinedw oodent rougha bout 4 metresl ong with a uniform
heavyb oulderso n hydraulicc laims.6 width of c.450m illimetresm ountedo n a frameo r legs.W ater
hydraulic elevating:I n 1880J . R. Perryi ntroducedh ydraulic was poweredi n at the upper end while the material was
elevatingw hile working in GabrielsG ully in the Tuapeka agitatedw ith a shovel.L arges tonesw erep ickedo ut, while the
district. Elevatorse mploy the Venturi hydraulic principle resto f the materiapl assedo vera gratinga t thel owere nd.F ine
whereby energy releasedb y the expansiono f high pressure materiald roppedt hrough onto a serieso f riffles anangedl ike
water dischargedth rougha narrow pipe and a speciallys haped thosei n a cradlew hile the resto f the materialw as discharged
orifice (a Venturi) createsa powerful suction which lifts out thel owere nd.U suallyL ong Tomsw erep laceda t thee dge
materia(l watera ndb asalg ravels)u p a largeri nnerp ipe so that of a creekw hich sweptt het ailingsa way.
they can be passedt hrough sluice boxes to recover the gold monitor (giant nozzle,s luiceg un, nozzle):d evicec onsisting
content( Fig. 3). Elevators( bucketa nd hydraulic)w ere used ofa pivotables teelb arrelw ith interchangablber assn ozzlesfo r
where there was insufficient fall (ie the ground being worked directing high pressurew ater brought by pipeline onto a
wast oo deept o allow thed isposaol f tailings).S ometimesth ey sluice-facfeo r thep urposeo fbreakingi t downa ndp assingth e
were usedi n seriest o elevatew ashdirtf rom deepw orkings. materialt hroughs luiceb oxes.I n practice,i t seemst he terms
They were mainly usedo n the Otago goldfields, most notably monitor and nozzle are frequentlyu sed synonymouslyb, ut
6
Fig.4: Chinesep addocking claim at
Blaclcw'aterW, estC oast South I slanrl,
New Zealanrl. The photograph shows
the overburden stripped ofi, auriferous
gravels being shovelled into a long tom
type box-sluice, und waste rock strtcked
behind the work lace (Department oJ
Co nser v at io n coI Iec t ion, Wes tl and ).
, oast
ould
toa
r for
lutha
cin
iit to
552.
:gers
ripes strictly speakingt he lattert erm referst o the interchangeable Zealanda nd elsewhereo btainedt he right to manufacturet hem
:able brassf ittingso n thee nd of a monitor.T he namew asp robably and they soonb ecamet he predominanwt ater-poweremd eans
rcing derivedf rom the swivel-firingC ivil War gunboato f the same of driving machineryo n theg oldfields.
u'ith name.I nventedin Califomiai n 1853,m onitort echnologyw as placer mining: a term of Spanisho rigin usede xtensivelyin
cing further refined over the next 20 years.9T he most powerful North Americanl iteraturet o describet he mining of alluvial
}JITS. nozzlesw ere known as Giants. They could be swivelled deposits; essentially a synonym for alluvial mining.
iaces uithout intemrptingt he water flow. The developmenot f a Placer/alluviaml ining involvesu singw atert o wash( alluvial)
*ted built-ind eflectorw as an importanti nnovationP. rior to theni t gravelst o recoverg old and/or other heavy metals such as
was necessaryf or one or more men to move a monitor platinum and tin. As water flows over gravels (placed in
d the manually backwardsa nd forwards, or up and down with devicess ucha s cradles,l ong toms,o r sluiceb oxes),d irt and
considerablee xertiona nd often coupledw ith dangert o the the bulk of the lighter non-auriferousm ateriala re washed
-li-pisecso operatorsT. he deflectingd evicee nabledo ne man to easily away,w hile the heavym etal particles( e.g. gold) sink to the
handlet he largestG iant.M en who operatedm onitors/nozzles
or to bottom and are trappedb ehind rffies which are periodically
rrered escribeda sn ozzlemen.
cleanedto enablet heg old to be recovered.
'elds.
' and nugget:a largep ieceo f alluvialg old, as distinctf rom a lump pothole mining (potholing):s eet ailings,p othole.
The or masso f gold embeddedin solidr ock.
puddle: processo f soakinga lluvial gravelst o breakd own the
Ence paddock/paddocking( stone to grass): (1) an excavation
stickyc lay content.
each madef or procuringw ashdirti n shallowg round;( 2) a wooden
bin or areaf or the storageo f washd irt; (3) to paddocka claim puddling machine/puddling site: a machine designedt o
slish meantt o work it systematicallbyy meanso f a serieso f small, agitateg old-bearingg ravelt o get rid of heavyc lay, which is
shallowp its, or altemativelyt o excavateo ut the whole mass washeda wayi n water.P uddlingw asu sede xtensivelyo n some
leavinga larges quarep it (Fig. 4). In flood-pronea reaso n the of theA ustraliang oldfieldsw hereh eavyc laysw erea problem.
:rous
\VestC oast,g round wasp addockedt,h e aim being to get as The configurationo f a horse-powerepdu ddlers itei s similart o
much wash-dirta s possibleo ut and storeda bovet he known thatf ound on a horse-powereCd hileanm ill stte.I t consistso f
r the flood level,s o thatw ashingc ouldp roceedif ther iver rose.O n a circulart roughe xcavatedin theg rounda roundw hich a horse
!50. theW estC oastt he phrases lonet o grassw as usedt o describe dragsa pair of rakesw hich stir up auriferousg ravelsp lacedi n
*ing thea cto f gettingo re out ands tockpilingit in a paddock. the trench and causea dheringc lay to be washedo ff. Like a
'* ere Chilean mill roller, the rakes in a puddlera re pivoted at a
panning: the use of a fossickingd ish or gold pan to test or
:o an centralp oint obliging the horset o walk continuouslya round
recovera lluvialg old, usuallyi n the gravelso f river or stream
tbrm the perimetero f the puddlingt rench.
I ater beds.T he first gold pans,h and-forgedb y local blacksmiths,
appearedin the 184Osin theU nitedS tates. race (water race): an aqueducot r channel( usuallyo pen)f or
'*.as
conductingw atert o or from a mining site.L arge waterr aces
e rhe Pelton wheel: the Pelton wheel was the culminationo f a
from a permanenst ourcew ere called supplyr aces.T ypically
Fine 30 year quest to design a betler water wheel. Prior to the
water would be drawn from a supply race or a local water
I like inventiono f the Pelton wheel all kinds of curved buckets
sourcea nd storedi n holding dams from where it would be
ilged (attachedto ther ims of waterw heels)h adb eent ried to utilise
conveyed by head-racest o individual claims. Tail-races,
;dge water flows more effectively.L ouis Peltono f Comptonville,
usuallyb oxedw ith rffies in the uppers ectiona nd pavedw ith
California,c onceivedth e idea of a wheel lined with buckets
woodenb locks or flat rocks in the lower reachest ook the finer
with verticalf ins which split the water deliveredt hrougha
itlng
high pressuren ozzle on impact. His patent wheels had water-bomet ailings (sludge)f rom claims to where it was
:s tor
dischargedo nto lower lying ground or more frequentlyi nto
rlo a considerablea dvantageosv er conventionawl ater-wheelas nd
s the rapidly gainedf avour.T hey were much smaller,m orer eadily existing water-coursesa nd rivers. Racesa re called ditches in
transportablea,b let o be drivenw ith a muchs mallerv olumeo f Americanm iningl iterature.
erms
. but water,a nd had easily replaceablep arts.C ompaniesin New reservoir: seed am.
into a particulars ludgec hannel.O n the Kumarag oldfield it
amountedto about3 0 perc ento f whatt he minersw erep aying
for water drawn from the Governmentr aces.T he short, often
high-capacityt ailracesf rom battery sitest o a nearbyr iver are
alsos ometimesd escribeda s sludgec hannels.
sluice:s eeh ydraulics luice.
sluice box: a long trough with a loose bottom on which there
are rffies or holes.T he washdirt (conveyedi n flowing water)
is passedt hrough the box where the gold and other heavy
metals is trappedi n the riffles or falls through into the false
bottom section.L ong Tomsw ere essentiallyp ortables luice
boxes.
sluice face: essentiallya work face; artificially createdt errace-
facesc reatedb y sluicinga wayt erracem argins.
stone barrow: a low slung wheelbarrowu sed to cart away
large boulders which would otherwise have blocked or
damageda nilrace, or movet hemf rom anyo theri nconvenient
location.
stone trays: a steel tray somethingl ike a modem dragline
bucketw hich wass uspendefdr om a horizontaal erialr opeway
(Fig. 5). A secondaryro pe enabledt he tray to be raisedo r
lowered,o r moveda longt he main rope.A t the work face,t he
tray wouldb e loweredt o enablela rges tonesto be stackedin it.
It was then raised and run out along the main rope to a
dumping area, where the tray was tripped, depositingt he
stonesw ell awayf rom the work area.T wo rciling forms result
from this technologyc: onicala ndl inearm ounds.
stoningo ut: removingl arges tonesfr oma tailrace,u suallyb y
meanso f a stone-fork.
surfacing/surfacer: West Coast terms associated with
blacksandingd,e scribingth e workingo f sea-beacchl aims,a nd
the diggersw ho worked them.
A stoning tray being used to remove excessr ock rubble from a
operation,West Coast, South Island, New Zealand (Department tailings (alluvial): the solid waste from alluvial mining
of Co nser vation col l ec t io n, Wes tl and) . operationsF. iner materialw as usually washedi nto adjacent
watercourseCs.o bblesa ndb ouldersr emainede itherw ithin the
claim or adjacentT. ailingsa re often the dominantf eatureo n
riffleJripples: bars or cleats on the bottom of a cradle, Long
old alluvial mining sites.T heir form is directlyr elatedt o the
Tbm,s luice-boxo r tail-racefo r catchinga iluvial gold.R ipplei s
topographyt,h e natureo f the substratet,h e positiono f the
believedto be of Australiano rigin andw asu sedt o describeth e
washdirt, the depth of overburden,t he water supply, the
cleatso n amalgamatingt ables.
availableh ead,t he mannero f the water'sa pplicationa, nd the
rock-sluices:la rges luiceso r tail-racesw eref requentlyp aved lay of the land with regardt o dumping the wastem aterial.
with stoneb ecauseo f its greaterd urabilityt han wood.R ock- The arrangemento f tailings is an indicator of mining
sluicesw erev ery effectiveg old-catcherbsu t werem uchm ore techniquesu seda nd availablet echnology.tA0 lluvial tailings
difficult and tedioust o clean-up.H owever,t his aspecta lso can be grouped into three basic categories:h and-stacked,
madei t muchm ored iffrcultf or thievest o stealg old (ie clean- mec h anically- h ydraulicaLlys tacked , and dred ge tailings (the
up) from thes luicesw hent heyw ereu nattendeadt night. latterb einga specialisefdo rm of the secondc ategory)H. and-
rotary screen: seet rommel. stackedta ilingst endt o be neatera nds malleri n areat hant hose
siphon:p ipingu sedt o conveyw atero vera n obstacleo r across depositedm echanicallyo r hydraulically.
a depressiona nd deliver it to a lower level by meanso f Almost withoute xceptionta ilingsw eres tackedo n worked
atmospheripcr essureT.h e availabilityo f iron pipesf rom about out or wasteg roundu nlesst herew as no altematives uch as
1890 revolutionisedr ace building. Previouslyi t had been whena claim was startedA. t this stagei t was oftenn ecessary
necessaryto go around,o r spang ullies with expensiveflu ming to elevate( usuallyb y meanso f an inclinedt ramway)l arge
on trestlesI.r on pipesc ould be laid directlyo n trestles( in lieu volumeso f heavyc obbleso ut of the workingsa nd stackt hem
of fluming),b ut thec onstructiono f siphonsd owno nes ideo f a on virgin ground.S ucht ailingsa rel ikely to be indicativeo fthe
gully and up to a race( at a slightly lower level) on the other first working on a particularc laim. Understandablyth ese
side was the preferredm eans of conveyingw ater across unworkeda reasa re often workedb y later mining companies.
depressions. This pattemi s well illustratedo n the Kumarag oldfieldo n the
sludge( channel):v iscousm ud or silrladen water.U ndert he WestC oastw heret he high percentagoef largeb ouldersin the
mining legislationi n New Znaland,t he govemmentc ould alluviumn ecessitatetdh eir stackingi nitially on virgin ground
gazettet hat certainr ivers were deemedt o be sludgec hannels, to facilitatet hew orkingo f specificc laims.
in which case miners could apply for a right to discharge tailings (alluvial, hand-stacked):s eeR itchie 1981f or a full
sludgef rom alluvial or hard rock mining directly into them. discussioInI .
All ther iverso n the SouthI slandW estC oastw ered esignated - parallel tailings: visually the simplestf orm of tailings,
sludge channels.T he Ohinemuri River is the predominant consistingo f parallel rows of handstackedc obblesa nd
North Island example. Sludge channel was also used to bouldersu suallya ligneda t or nearr ight anglest o a river or
describe major tailraces (often constructed by the N.Z. streamS. iteso f this types eldome xceed1 00b y I 50 metres
Governmentt o facilitate mining). Mining parties paid a in areaa nd the stoner ows areu suallyl esst han 1.5m etres
'channel-feea' llowing them to discharges ludgea nd tailings high. They are frequentlyl ocatedr ight on the edge of a
8
.ld it riverbank.A variationo f this form, curved tailings. is slopet o be worked.A sideg utter was thene xtendedu p one
r)'ing essentiallys imilar.T he stackedr ows are curvedb ut still or both boundarieso f the claim. Waterw as conveyedt o the
often parallelt o one another. top of the claim by race or pipeline and sluicing
:r :ue box tailings: this form of tailings is a variationo f the commencedb y working downslope.A strip of ground
parallelt ype, but differs in that the rows of stackedc obbles about 3 metres wide was thus worked either side of the
are containedi n a box which is formedb y eitheru nworked gutter which acteda s a channelf or the loosenedm aterialt o
ground, or more usually, a row of stackedt ailings across be carried down the tailrace.T his processw as repeateds, o
there
the lower (and frequently the upper)e nd of the workings. that the groundw asc ut away in parallels lices.W orkingso f
iater)
The box arrangemenat ppearsto be an improvemento n the this type are typically locateda long old terracer isers.
Eavy
simple parallelm ethodo f working becausea ll the gold- - amorphous tailings (hummocky tailings): catch-allt erms
false
.luice bearings luice water would have beenc hannelledt hrough to describes tonet ailingsw ith no coherentp atterningA. t
one end tailrace. There are severalg ood exampleso f this first glance this type appears to be the result of
typei n theu pperC luthav alley. indiscriminates tackingo f cobblesi n low moundso r heaps
Tace-
herringbone tailings: tailings of this type, if neatly during sluicingo perationsA. closere xaminationu sually
stackeda, re generallyc onsideredto be the most interesting revealss halloww inding channelst hreadingb etweent he
away form because of their symmetry. The characteristic moundsa nd leadingt o a low point where presumablya
dor 'herringbonep' atternw as producedb y hand stackingo f sluiceb ox was located.A morphoust ailingsa re typically
nient cobblesa nd bouldersu ncoveredw ithin terraceg ravels locatedo n river marginsa nd on ground with minimal fall,
durings lrice mining operationsT. he stonesw ere stacked the pattem often being in part attributablet o the uneven
gline in parallell inesa t anglest o a centralt ailrace,t he working surfaceo fthe basalm aterialo r bedrock.
euay face encroachingf rom the lower end of a claim. This - small claim tailings (pothole tailings): the term pothole
ld or offeredt he minimumi mpedimentto the sluicew aterf low mining was coined by Ritchie to describet he principal
:. rhe whichc aniedt heg old-bearingse dimentdso wnt het ailrace method of gold working during the early days of the
in it. andt hrougha sluiceb ox wheret heg oldw ast rappedw, hile nineteenth-centurgyo ldrushesin CentralO tago.lzD uring
IOa the rest of the material dischargedi nto a watercourseo r this phaset he miners concentratedo n working the stream
Ilhe formed fans below the workings.B ecausec obblesa nd and river beds,w hich were dividedi nto individualc laims
result boulderst endedt o block the tailracesa nd trap the gold measuring2 4 by 24 feet (7.23b y 7.23 metres)p er miner.
before it reachedt he sluice box, the stonesw ere hand The minersd ug into theg old bearingg ravelsw ith pick and
lr by stacked into rows to enable the system to work as shovela nd raisedt he gravel with the assistanceo f a whip
efficientlya s possibleO. ncea retainingw all was formed, or a counterbalancedli fting arm. The gravel was then
uith cobblesa nd coarseg ravelsw ere forkedb ehindt he wall. pannedo r cradled.T he resultingt ailings reflect the mining
i- and Retainingw alls are an importantf eatureo f virtually all method.A s a consequenceth e creekb edsa nd surrounding
forms of hand-stacketda ilings.T hey were erectedin any low ground becamed otted with hummocky circular and
situationw herei t wasn ecessartyo containt het ailingsa nd oblongm ounds,o ccasionallys eparatebdy waterc hannels.
ining
preventt hem from impedingt he tailrace,a nd in confined Althought he individualc laimsw eres mall,w henn umbers
SCent
situationse, .g. one claim abovea notherw, heret herew as of suchw orkingsw eree stablisheidn closep roximity,e .g.
in the
no placet o dump the waster ock exceptw ithin one'so wn at Gabriels Gully, the aggregatew as quite extensive.
re on
claim. Excellents urvivinge xampleso f this type can be seeni n
o the
f the Herringbonet ailings frequently consist of several the flats of the Bendigo Creekn ear Cromwell, a legacyo f
. the herringbonec ompartmentsse paratedb y ridgeso f largely the 1862-1865 rush there, and on the Lisle-Denison
d the unworkedm ateriala longw hich the waterw as distributed goldfieldsi n Tasmania.lD3 espitet he fact that larget racts
erial. in pipes.H erringboneta ilingsa reo ftenv ery extensivea nd of riverbedsw erew orkedt his way, survivinge xampleso f
rnin_q represenat hugei nvestmenitn termso f humane ffort.T hey the type are uncommon. The former tailings have been
rlings are generallya ssociatedw ith ground sluicing or low- obliteratedb y freshetso r laterm iningv entures.
cked, pressureh ydraulic sluice workings into river terrace tailings (alluvial,s tackingm echanicallya ssisted):
, (the _sravelSs.o meo f the beste xamplesin New Zealanda rei n - finger tailings: this form of tailings results from the
land- thev icinity of Cromwell. dumping of tailings from trucks (sklps)i n more or less
those fan tailings:t his type area crossb etweenp arallelt ailings level moundso r rows radiatingf rom a point source,s uch
and the heningbonef orm. They were constructedo n as the heado f a tailrace where the sluice box was located
rrked groundw hich containedle ssc oarsem aterialt han that in or at the heado f an inclined tramway( refer definition).
:h as which herringbonefo rmationsa re frequentlyf ormed.F an The lines reflect the pattem of dumping, the tracks being
ss.ilry tailings are derivedf rom both ground and low-pressure extendeda long each ridge as it was formed. A shallow
large hydraulic sluicing. The fan patternsw ere createdb y the depressionm arking the line of the tram tracks and
rhem minersh and-stackintgh ec obblesa ndb oulders( freedf rom remnantso f tram track often remain along the crests,a nd
rf the thet erraceg ravels)in rowsc onvergingo n a singlep oint in thet rackso ftenp asst hroughc uttingso r depressions.
these the tailrace where rffies were located to trap the gold, - radial fan tailings (descending): formed in locations
rnies. whilst the spoil was washedt o lower ground or into a where adequatef all and spacea llowed. Due to the steep
n the nearbyr iver. fall, large cobblesa nd small bouldersc ould be washed
Lnt he blow down tailings: tailings of this type result from a down throught het ailrace. Often a slight indentationo n the
ound system of sluicing known as blowing down (Ritchie crestsm arksw heret heb oxingw ass ituatedT. he latterw as
l98l:55). The introductiono f the methodi s creditedt o a extendedo r radiateda sr equired.
r tull Russianm iner. Subsequentlyit has been used for the - conical tailings: where stonet ailingsh aveb eend umped
working of wide stretcheso f poor alluvial ground in from a point source either at the head of an incline
lings, Central Otago. Its greatesta pplicationh as been in the tramway (horse-o r water-powered)o, r from a stoning tray
i and Cromwella reaw herei t was introducedb efore 1880.T he which was anchoredto a singlec entralp oint,t he resultant
,er or methodd iffersf rom ordinaryg roundo r hydraulics luicing, tailingsf orm distinctivec onicalm ounds.T here are some
ETICS which begin at the lowestp oint of the grounda nd were fine exampleso n the Kumarag oldfieldo n theW estC oast.
retres worked forward on a rising bottom. In the blow down The object of the exercisew as to minimise the ground
ofa svstema. maint ailrac€ wase xcavateadc rossth eb aseo f a coveredw ith tailines.
- linear mounds: linear formationso f contiguousc onical the centreo f the screenT. he gold bearingw ashf ell throught he Tt
moundsc reatedb y thed epositiono f stonet ailingsd umped about I centimetred iameterp erforationso n to goldsaving Tl-t
from a stoning tay. As the anchor points of a cableway tables on either side of the screen.L arge rocks and any
(from which a stoning tray was suspended)w ere material that did not fit through the perforationsm oved to a f
progressivelys hifted as sluicing advanced,t he tailings shoota t the stem of the dredgew herei t was dischargedin to 5rr,
tendedt o fall in linearm oundsw ith undulatingc restso ften the river,o r in the caseo f laterd redgesit wasl ifted by means rDa
at right anglest o the sluicef ace. of an elevatora nd stackedw ell clear of the dredge (see q&
tailings (dredge):d redget ailings usually consist of extensive tailings, dredge for further details). Trommels mounted on iEr
serieso f overlappingm oundso f coarset ailings( cobblesa nd wheelso r steelr unnersf or manoeuvrabilitya re an important :!t
boulders) dischargedf rom gold dredges.T here is a marked elemento f modemd aya lluvialg old recoveryp lants. h
differencein heighta nd patterningb etween' early'and 'late' tunnelling: seed efinitioni n hardr ock section. $eE
dredge tailings. In 'early' dredgest he larger coarse material
turbines: water-poweredtu rbines were essentiallyf urther G
passedt hrough the screen( seet rommel)a nd via a shoot over
developmentosf the conventionawl aterw heel and theP elton !@t
the stem of the dredge.T he fine materialw as often discharged r
wheel.A turbinec onsistso f a fully encasedro tord rivenb y the
on top of the coarse material resulting in low undulating impacto f waterf ed on to it througha pipe;t he energyo utput l
mounds. The larger 'later' dredges created high parallel being relatedt o the pressure( the head)a nd the volume of the rd
concentricr ows of tailings superimposedo n the sinuous water.T urbinesg eneratceo nsiderablsep eeda ndp owerb ut low *::[
courset hat the dredgew orked.A fter the advento f the tailings torque, consequentlyth ey were generallyn ot suitablef or :q
stacker or elevator in 1894, dredge tailings were able to be powerings tamperb atteriesb ecauseto o much gearingd own glr
stacked2 0 metreso r more high. was required.T hey also requirea consistenwt ater supplyt o sl
tailings stacker (elevator): a device credited to Cutten Bros work efficiently;e vena smalla mounto f wearg reatlyr educes q
Engineering,D unedin in 1894 for stackingd redge tailings a turbine'se fficiency. ,irt
well aft of a dredge.P rior to this innovationd redge-masters washdirt (pay dirt): thea uriferousp ortiono falluvial deposits ql
were constantlyf rustratedb ecauseth e excavateds poil tended (gravel,s and,c lay or cement). mld
to flow back undert heir dredgesa nd thwart their operation. :q
Tailingss tackerse, ssentiallya n endlessb elt on a hugeg antry, washing up (cleaning up): the processo f collecting the al|u
enabledta ilingst o be stackedin high moundsw ell clearo f the material (gold, other heavy metals and sand) trapped in tE[
stemo f a dredge,in so doingc reatingt he distinctivew inding tailrace rffies and,s eparatingt he gold from the other heavy ,-
metals.
tailing pattems.
:01
tailrace: a channelo r aqueductf or conveyingd irty water and water balances:a variationo f the self-actingtr am technology d
tailings away from a mine site. Usually the sluice boxeso r (seei nclinet ramway).W aterb alancesw orkedi n the opposite rb
rffies werep laceda t the heado f the tailrace. mannerA. ballastt ank full of water going downwardw ould E
haul a loadedt ruck upward.W hen both hadb eene mptied,t he !r
tailrace tunnels:t ailracet unnels( alsoc ommonlyd escribeda s truck, beingh eavier,w ould retum to the bottomf or refilling.
sludge channels)w ere used extensivelyo n the West Coast to Becauseth e tank usuallyt ook a long time to fill, jigs (incline il
facilitatew orkingc laimso n the fluvio-glacialg ravelt erraces, tramways)w ere generallyp referred. lor
e.g. at ShamrockC reeka nd on the Kumarag oldfield.t+T he url
lack of fall in these locations thwarted sluicing, so long water right: historically,a n authority grantedb y Warden's ry
inclinedt unnelsw ered rivenf rom an adjacenvt alley (e.g.t he Courtst o draw a specifieda mounto f water from a race or &d
Taramakauv alley) to facilitate drainagea nd remove tailings streamf or mining purposesW. aterr ightsw eree agerlys ought @r I
from the work area.T he tailracet unnelsw hich camei n under after and keenlyh isputedi n the Warden'sC ourts.T hey were 5'
the areast o be worked were accessedb y one or more shafts granted directly to claimholdersa nd to companiesw hich qi
specialiseidn supplyingw atert o miners.
which serveda s drain-holesa nd enabledt he minerst o sluice lDn
down to the level on which leads of alluvial gold were water wheels:o vershowt aterw heelsw eret he mostu niversal
concentrated.B ecauset here was no working space in the motivef orceo n theg oldfieldsT. heyw ereu sedt o drivea wide -rl[
claimsi nitially,t heg old savingb oxeso ftenh adt o be installed rangeo f equipmenitn cludingp umps,w inchess, tampb atteries
in theh eado fthe tunnelsa ndm aintainedth ereu ntil spaceh ad and mills, ande lectricg eneratingp lants.W aterw heelsr anged
been created outside the tunnel portals. The fall was from 5 to over2 0 metresin diametera ndw ereg enerallyo vera -5c
rd
particularlyi mportant,t he more the betterb ecauseit enabled metre wide. Some were able to be driven forwards or
larger tailings to be dischargedt hrough a tailrace. Large backwardsb y movingt he watero utletf ore or aft of top-dead- I
boulderse ncounterewd hilstd rivingt het unnel,o r blockingt he centre.W hen usedi n reversew ater wheelse nabledm aterial, ts
racesw ere alwaysp roblematicalB. eforem ining commenced e.g. pulp in treatmenpt lants,t o be elevatedfr om one level to 5
each day (ie before the water was turnedo n) it was usual another.I n New Zealandt,h ey were then termed elevatorso r
'rdr
practicef or someoneto checkt he tailracef or blockagesT. he elevatingw heels;w hereasth ey werec alledr aff or raft wheels d
full length of tailrace tunnels were boxed so that the water- in Australia.W ater wheels( madem ainly from timber) were r
bornet ailingsw ould not scourt he tunnel-surfaceasn d cause preferred for their simplicity, economy and reliability.
ry
collapsesT. he wastem ateriawl asu suallyd ischargeodn to the Machineryw as sometimesd rivend irectlyo ff the centrals haft
:qt
valleyf loor or into a river at thel owere nd. but usuallyt he energyw as transferredv ia a circulart oothed m
trommel (rotary screen): a powered rotating cylindrical rack bolted towardst he circumferenceo f the wheel. This
engagedg earingo n an intermediates haft via which pulleys M
sieve,o f various sizes,f or cleaninga nd sizing aurifereous nn
gravelso r ore. The developmenot f trommelsi s perhapsb est and drive-beltst ransferedt he power to a battery or other m
machinesA. lthough waterwheelsc ontinuedt o be used,t hey
exemplifiedb y their role on the steamp oweredb tcket dredges
wereg raduallys upersedebdy Peltonw heelsa ndt urbines. lr*s
developedi n New Tnaland in the 1880s for recovering !n-
auriferousg old. Trommels( usually called screenso n gold windsail: a canvass ail suspendedfr om a pole adjacentt o a
;:g
dredges)c onstituteda n importantp art of the gold saving shaft to divert fresh air into the shaft. Used on the arid
&Es
apparatusa nd were a major componento f the machinery( a Australiang oldfields.
Tt.Ir@
few dredgese mployedv ibratorys creens)S. poilb roughtu p by wing dam: low barriersu suallym adeo f stoneo r timber for T1:IEI
the buckefchainw as dischargedin to the upper end of the eitherd eflectinga streams ot hati t erodesit s own banks,o r for 'tTlt.m
trommel.A s the materialm ovedd own towardst he lower end it the purposeo f dewateringa portiono f the streamc hannels o
it6f
wass prayedw ith powerfulj ets of waterf rom a pipel ocatedin thati t canb e workedi n a dry state.
:]-siT
10
rh the TERMS ASSOCIATED
avlng WITH HARD ROCK MINING Ft .ddtu'gErm5 do f o qlrsPdicaadlin ,
t any ana d.6ih of a tb|..
Itoa adit (dive or drift): a horizontal or gently inclined tunnel
I into driven from the surface( typically into a hillside or outcrop)f or
neans the purposeo f intersectingo r mining an ore body (Fig. 6). i:.. */ 'lsldtlfntd
{ see Adits were also driven to intersects haftsf or the purposeo f Nfirhtl ':
don dewateringA. dits are usually drivenw ith a slight inclinationt o lbdfzn)
onant enablel aden mine trucks to run downhill and out of the mine. ffil
The empty truck is then pushedb ack up to the work face. A
slights lopea lsoe nablesg roundw atert o draino ut of a mine.
aerial ropeway (aerial tramway): a large-capacity,v ery
Irther
)elton economicals ystemf or conveyingo re or coal from a mine to a
processingo r storagef acility. Transporti s effectedb y meanso f
r\ the
steelb uckets( or aerial sftrps)s uspendedb y carriersf ixed to an
}utput
endlesss teelr ope strunga long pulleyso n pylons.T he buckets
rf the
r.r'ereu suallyf illed manuallyf rom a chutea t the uppere nd and
.!tl ow
emptieda utomaticallya t the lower end.A erial tramwaysw ere
e for I
generallyc onsidereds uperior to self-actingi nclines in most
dorvn
situations. Aerial systems required minimal surface
rl1 to
preparationc, ould traverseu ndulatingt errainm ore readily,a nd
duces
required much less maintenanceA. erial ropewaysa re called
'flying foxes'i n Australia;in New Z,ealand,'flyingfo x' is used
poslls
to describea devicep rincipally usedf or crossingr ivers.T hey
consisto f a seato r cages uspendefdr om a pulley which runs
g the along a cables tretcheda crosst he river.T he userp ulls the cage
ldin acrossb y haulingo n ropess uspendebde low the cableway.
|tsavy
air receiver: large elongatedr iveted steelv esselu sedt o hold
compresseadi r at a pressureo f 9G-100p si. Like boilerst hey
ology had to be certificateda nd havea numbers tampedo n them. If
fu.fflldt,tffiso*v Brlfrkwrctlwll*v
POSlte this numberc an be locatedt he history of the receiver( and of tMwtzn l of t@n qadz raf
rould thereforep art of the site's history) can be raced through
d- the \linistry of Transportb oiler records.A ir receiversw ere Fig.6 : Featureosf a typicaul rulergrouqruula rtzm ine( Moorea ndR itchie
illing. ;ommonly sited in a small building near a mine entrance. 1996:34).
rcline Compresseadi r (thea ir-feed)w ast ypicallyd eliveredv ia pipes
to undergroundw orkingsa t 90-100 poundsp er squarei nch engineersd evelopeda variant of the beam engine in which a
den's and used to drive rock-drilLs, mechanical loaders, hoists, centrally pivoted arm supportsb eamso n either side of it, as
ice or \entilatingf ans,a ndo therm achinesw, herei t wasn ot feasible opposedt o the usual situationw heret he beami s pivotedf rom
ought ro use,o r wheret herew as no provisionf or electricityW. hile its centrepoint. A fine working example of an Australian
\Ag re the efficiencyo f compresseadi r is very low (c.20p er cent),i t enginec anb e seena t SovereignH ill, BallaratV, ic.
r hich \\as very versatilee nergyf orm and assistedin ventilation, bearers (timber bearers): heavy horizontal beams,
particularlyin deade nds. sometimesh itched into the rock walls, used to support the
versal air shaft: a shaft specifically driven to connect with timbering in a shaft, or support superimposeds ets. Shaft
.rride undergrounwd orkingst o providev entilation. bearersw ereu suallyi nstallede very3 0 feet.
lerrcs attle: mullock, ie waste rock. A Comish term still used in Blondin: the name given to variousf orms of aerial cableway.
rnged South Australia to describem ullock and/or crushedw aste The term is derived from Blondini, the famous tight-rope
)\'er a rock.u suallya ssociatewd ith copperm ining. walker. Blondins were principally used for open-pit working,
ls or especiallyf or conveyings olid blocks of stonef rom quarriest o
anticline: the arch of a fold within strata.
dead- others ites.T he Blondin erectedb y the CoromandeGl raniteC o.
erial, back: theo verheadce ilingo r roofofa stope,d riveo r crosscut. to conveyg ranitef rom their quarry to their wharf at Paritu is a
rel to backs( back reel): proveno rer eserveisn a mine.A lso usedi n notable( but now demolished)N ew Zealande xample.B londins
Jrs 0r referencet o the thicknesso f ore above a particularp oint usuallyr equireda t leasto ne massives eto f sheerlegso r a pylon
,h eels underground. from which a heavy counterweightw as suspendedto keept he
r* ere beam engine/pump:t he steam-powerebde ame ngine( or bob cable taut under load. Typically the cradle or carrier ran out
bility. engine) was developedi n Britain in the first half of the along a near-horizontawl ire until it hit a stop,w hich tripped a
shaft eighteenthc entury for dewateringm ines. Over the next mechanismw hich automaticallyl oweredt he suspendedlo ad to
othed 100 yearsn umerousr efinementsw ere patentedO. ne variant, the ground. Blondins were often powered by elecuicity
This the Cornishb eame ngine,w as usede xtensivelyin tin mines. producedb y a turbine locatedo n a nearbyw atercourse.
ullel s
Beame nginesc onsisto f a largel ever( 5 to 15 metreslo ng, ie blow: large section of reef exposedo n surface and usually
other
the beamo r bob) which transmitst he motion impartedb y a worked by openc asr methods.
. they
pistont o eithera connectingr od or pump rod or both.I n the
bob wall: the front wall of a Comish engine house,u sually
1840st he technologyw as transferredto the SouthA ustralian
about 1.5 to 2 metrest hick, on which the beam (bob) was
Itoa copper mines and on to the goldmineso f Victoria.tsT he
hingedb y a gudgeon( hingep in).
: arid Westem Springsp ump at MOTAI, Auckland, is the most
notables urviving beame nginei n New Zealand.O ther former bonanza (jeweller's Dor): small patcheso f ore or alluvial
er for notablee xamplesw eree mployeda t the KawauI slandc opper leadso f exceptionarli chness.
or for mine, and on the No. 5 shaft at the Martha mine, Waihi. brace: landing platform on a headframet o which ore and
rel so Substantiarle rnnantso f the distinctiveC omish pumphouses mullock are raised; usually the same height as the mullock
still survivea t the lastm entionedlo cationsA. ustralianm ining dumpa nd mill entrance.
lt
buck reet name given to large quafiz reefs in which there is
little or no gold or silver.
cage: the car or carrier usedt o hoist men and materialsu p and
downa shaft.
caps: heavy timbers placedh orizontally on top of one or two
vertical timbersQ trops)t o supportt he roof of a drive or tunnel
(sees ets,l ath, sill), or bord (seec oal mining terms).
chamber: (l) a largec averne xcavateda s part of underground
workings for the placemento f pumps,e ngines,w inding gear
and other machinery;( 2) the loading areaa djacentt o thes haft
on eachm ine level; known as a plat (derivedf rom German)i n
theU .S.A.a ndA ustralia.
chute (shoot):a channecl ut in rock,o r constructedo f timber,
via which ore wasp assedfr om a highert o a lower leveli n an
undergroundm ine, or outside it, e.g. from an adit portal to a
groundt ramway.
collar: timbering, steelwork, concrete or masonry erected
aroundt he entrancet o a shaft, usually about the first 3 metres
from the ground surfacet o a headframeb race, to reducet he
risk ofthings falling downa ndp revenftr ettingo fthe entrance.
collar height the height of the entrance(st)o an underground
mine( specificallyo nea ccessebdy a shafi)a boves eal evel.
Cornish pumphouse: (seeb eam enginelpump,e ngineh ouse)
Distinctivet all structurews hich housedC omishb eame ngines
used for dewateringm ines.T he shell of the most notable
Comish pumphousei n New Zealandi,s preserveda djacentt o
the Martham ine at Waihi, while otherss urvivea t the copper
minesa t Moontaa ndB urrai n SouthA ustralia,a nda t theD uke
I
of Cornwallg old minea t FryerstownV, ictoria.
il
costean: a trench dug into the ground surface to find and !
exposeq uaraveinso r oreb odies.
country rock: a rock masse nclosedo r intersectedb y lodes, Fig.7:D riJtedr rill riggedJb rd rilling( McArat 988). Itl
veins,o r reefs.C ommonlyt he predominantr ock type found in
I
a particulara rea. drive: (sometimesc alled a drift or adit| ahorizontalo r slightly
l
cribbing: close settingo f timber supportsu, sedi n locations inclined undergroundtu nnel which is excavated(d rifted.o r I
wheret he countryr ocft is soft or very wet. driven)a longt he courseo f a yeln.D rives( ando therf ormso f
cwreorses s-cuuntk:a t o tu nnenwe ll edrvievelsn,ca rcorsoss-sct huetsw c oeurrese exo cf aav raeteef.dtA o s c suht athftes rmoionfi,n flgo tourn, nfaeclse) (h waovrekt hfaec feo)l,lao nwdin wga rlelsc (osgidneisw eadfle lsa)t.u ,Drersi-v inae II
reefs approximatelya t right angles,a fter which driving was north'referst o a tunnelb eingd riveni n a northerlyd irection. I
commenced in both directions along the reef. Further dump: seem ullockd ump. I
crosscuttingc ontinuedu ntil the farthestr eef was openedu p. dyke (dike): an intrusiveo, ftenp arallels ided,b odyo figneous I
Usuallyr isesw erec ut to upperl evelsf rom long cross-cutsto rock which cuts through pre-existings trata.I n the Thames t[
ensurea dequatev entilation.C ross-cutsw ere also made to mining areat hey were also calledh ard bars. I
d
connecta dits on the samel evel.. engineh ouse:a stmcturef or housingm inew inding,h auling,
deepf eads:m ineralv einsa t greatd epthsin a mine( alluvialo r andp umpinge nginesT. heya rem orel ikely to be calledp ump- I
hardr ock) workedb y 'deeps inking', ie excavatingd eeps hafts. housesi,f pumpingw as their predominanpt urposeo, r boiler- il
developmentw ork: tunnelling( driving), shaft-sinkinga nd housesi f they housedb oilers. The masonryr uins of the I
associatedw ork undertakento gain accesst o reefs in order to engine/pump-hous(beu ilt in 1848)a t theK awauI slandc opper I
commences topinga t variousl evels. mine site is a notable New Zealande xamplew hile good fr
examplesa re found in SouthA ustraliaa t Burra and Moonta.
dredgingp lant: seed efinitioni n alluvials ection. The terms engine-housep, ump-house,w inding-housea, nd t
!
drifter drill: a heavy pneumaticallyd riven drill used for boiler-housea re often interchangedd,e pendingo n the interest
rt
drivingi n hardg round( Fig. 7). Drifter drills arem ountedo n a or emphasiso f a particularw riter, e.g. all of theset ermsa re I
verticals teelc olumn which is wedgedb etweent he roof and used in referencet o the Kawau Island structurem entioned
I
floor of a drive. As the face advanced, the drill was above.T he brick boiler housea t the Big River mine on the
periodicallyre positioned. WestC oasti s a notablee xampleo f thatg enre. I
fl
dip: the inclination of shata or a vein measuredf rom the face: the working face of a drive or adit; ie the part to be
horizontaal t right anglesto thes trike.S ometimees xpresseads excavatende xt. T
5
so many feet horizontallyp er so many feet vertically. fault (ioint): a sheerp laneo r fracturez one in a rock mass
dolly pot: colloquialn ame for a mortar and pestleu sedb y wheret hereh asb eend isplacemenotf the sidesr elativet o one il
;irospectorsin the early days to powder pieceso f ore, whici anotherT. herea res everakl indso ffaulting. i
m
theyt henp annedto recovert heg old.I fthe gold wasv ery fine filling shaft: (seeg loryhole)a shaftf rom thes urfacev ia which
they sometimesr oastedt he specimeno n a shovelt o bum out filf was conveyedo r droppedt o backfill stopesT. l.reyu sually f{
sulphides,t hen powderedi t and mixed it with mercury.T he leaved eepc irculard epressions. .
resulting amalgam was then heated in a retort which footwall (stepwall):,t he masso f rock on the undersideo f an
vapourisedth em ercuryl eavingt heg old behind. inclinedf ault planeo r vein of ore. !f
r2 IM