An Analysis of Basil's Ad Adolescentes Jennifer Helen Gane PhD in the School of Historical

307 Pages·2012·2.06 MB·English

Fourth Century Christian Education: An Analysis of Basil’s Ad
Adolescentes

Jennifer Helen Gane

PhD in the School of Historical Studies
October 2012
i
Abstract

This thesis explores Basil’s Ad Adolescentes as the composition of a highly educated
bishop who was well grounded in classical paideia, but also deeply influenced by the
thoughts and writings of his Christian predecessors. Despite the long-running debate
about the appropriateness of a classical education for a Christian, the reality of the
Fourth Century meant that officials and clerics alike had been trained by means of
traditional literature. In a world where Christianity was no bar to public office, the
common educational experience became important since a mutual appreciation of
paideia enabled magistrates, bishops and orators to relate to one another regardless of
their religious convictions. Consequently, the sons of Christians attended school fully
aware of potential career opportunities in the secular sphere, since faith and office
appeared no longer at odds. It was in this climate that Basil composed Ad Adolescentes,
addressing himself to Christian youths embarking on higher education with a range of
possibilities before them.

In this thesis Basil’s text is analysed and discussed by a combination of thematic
introduction and commentary: the thematic chapters consider the subject, purposes and
specific and broader contexts of the Ad Adolescentes and the previous scholarship on
the work in this regard; the commentary explicates relevant details in the text and offers
close analysis which supports interpretations offered in the introduction.
Chapters 1 and 2 consider the views of previous scholars on the text and the educational
context relevant to Basil’s audience. The subsequent two chapters address the question
of literary influence and the traditional methods employed in the interpretation of
classical texts by both Christian and pagan educationalists. The final introductory
chapter explores the propaedeutic nature of the text and identifies the manner in which
Basil sought to synthesise lessons from traditional literature with homiletic themes, in
anticipation of the secular and Christian responsibilities available to his audience.

ii
Acknowledgements

I would like to thank my supervisors, Dr Rowland Smith and Mr Jeremy Paterson, for
all their help and encouragement over the years it has taken to complete this thesis. I am
also grateful to the staff and postgraduate students in the School of Historical Studies at
Newcastle University for their participation in the interdisciplinary research culture
which has made the School a supportive and enthusiastic environment in which to work.

This thesis would never have been completed without the support of many friends and
family members, but I am particularly indebted to Rev. Liz Kent for her hours of
encouraging advice and conversation. Without her, not only would the path to PhD no
doubt have proved too steep, but also the journey would have been far less pleasant.

Finally, my greatest thanks go to my husband, Brad, for his unwavering belief in my
abilities, his love and all his support in enabling me to pursue my dream.

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Contents

Abstract………………………………………………………………………….... ii
List of Abbreviations........................................................................................................ vi
Chapter 1. Basil’s biography and education in the fourth century .................................... 1
Basil’s biography .......................................................................................................... 1
The education of the fourth century .............................................................................. 2
The moral education ...................................................................................................... 5
Paideia ........................................................................................................................... 6
Basil’s higher education and subsequent career............................................................ 7
Basil’s writings ............................................................................................................. 9
Thesis outline ................................................................................................................ 9
Other works used in the thesis ............................................................................. 10
Chapter 2. Scholarship and setting of Ad Adolescentes .................................................. 12
Ad Adolescentes .......................................................................................................... 12
Ad Adolescentes in modern scholarship ...................................................................... 12
The audience ............................................................................................................... 15
The motivation ............................................................................................................ 22
Outline summary of Ad Adolescentes ......................................................................... 28
Chapter 3. Pagan and Christian influences ..................................................................... 31
Introduction ................................................................................................................. 31
Influences on Basil ...................................................................................................... 33
Plato ............................................................................................................................ 34
Plutarch ....................................................................................................................... 41
On the education of children: De liberis educandis ............................................. 42
How to Study Poetry: Quomodo adolescens poetas audire debeat ..................... 45
Making progress in virtue: Quomodo quis suos in virtute sentiat profectus ....... 50
Clement of Alexandria, Paedogogus .......................................................................... 52
Principles of Education ........................................................................................ 54
Propaideusis ......................................................................................................... 56
The use of classical literature ............................................................................... 57
Common Images .................................................................................................. 61
The Christian life ................................................................................................. 61
John Chrysostom ......................................................................................................... 66
Pagan examples .................................................................................................... 66
Athlete not ascetic ................................................................................................ 68
Control of passion ................................................................................................ 69
The Theatre .......................................................................................................... 70
Attitude to Rhetoric .............................................................................................. 72
Conclusion .................................................................................................................. 74
Chapter 4. Modes of Interpretation ................................................................................. 75
Basil as a product of his time ...................................................................................... 75
Allegory....................................................................................................................... 75
Odysseus ..................................................................................................................... 77
Herakles....................................................................................................................... 85
Analysis of the Versions of the Allegory ............................................................. 87
Chapter 5: Ad Adolescentes as a Propaideusis ................................................................ 99
Introduction ................................................................................................................. 99
Anger ......................................................................................................................... 101
Sermon against those who are prone to anger ........................................................... 103
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On the words ‘Give Heed to Thyself’ ....................................................................... 107
Chapter 6. Text and Translation of Ad Adolescentes .................................................... 113
Section 1 .................................................................................................................... 113
Section 2 .................................................................................................................... 114
Section 3 .................................................................................................................... 116
Section 4 .................................................................................................................... 117
Section 5 .................................................................................................................... 119
Section 6 .................................................................................................................... 122
Section 7 .................................................................................................................... 123
Section 8 .................................................................................................................... 125
Section 9 .................................................................................................................... 128
Section 10 .................................................................................................................. 134
Chapter 7. Commentary on Ad Adolescentes ................................................................ 137
Section 1 .................................................................................................................... 137
Section 2 .................................................................................................................... 147
Section 3 .................................................................................................................... 155
Section 4 .................................................................................................................... 163
Section 5 .................................................................................................................... 190
Section 6 .................................................................................................................... 207
Section 7 .................................................................................................................... 215
Section 8 .................................................................................................................... 229
Section 9 .................................................................................................................... 248
Section 10 .................................................................................................................. 285
References ..................................................................................................................... 296
Bibliography .................................................................................................................. 297

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List of Abbreviations

Adolescens Quomodo adolescens poetas audire debeat
Adv. Eos Homilia adversus eos qui irascuntur
Adv. Opp. Adversus oppugnatores vitae monasticae
Attende tibi Homilia in illud: Attende tibi ipsi
De Cohib. De cohibenda ira
De Idol. De Idolatria
De Inani De inani gloria et de educandis liberis
De Lib. De liberis educandis
Ep. Epistulae
GNaz Gregory Nazianzus
GNys Gregory of Nyssa
HE Historia Ecclesiastica
Hex. Homiliae in hexaemeron
JChrys John Chrysostom
Lampe Lampe, A Patristic Greek Lexicon (Oxford, 1961)
LSJ Liddell, Scott & Jones, A Greek-English Lexicon (Oxford, 1940)
OCD Hornblower & Spawforth, Oxford Classical Dictionary, 3rd
edition (Oxford, 1996)
Or. Orationes
Paed. Paedogogus
PG Patrologia Graeca, ed. J.P.Migne
Quis Suos Quomodo quis suos in virtute sentiat profectus
Reg. Fus. Asceticon magnum sive Quaestiones (regulae fusius tractatae)
PG 31.1052-1305
Rep Republic
Somnium Somnium sive vita Luciani
Str. Stromata
VMac. Vita Macrinae
WD Works and Days
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Chapter 1. Basil’s biography and education in the fourth century

Basil’s biography
Basil of Caesarea appears to have presented something of an enigma to historical
scholars. He was a prolific letter-writer and preacher of many homilies, as well as the
subject of two panegyrics by his friend and his brother,1 and is mentioned, along with
Gregory Nazianzen in Socrates’ Ecclesiastical History.2 Meredith maintains that as a
consequence of the literary evidence by or concerning Basil more is probably known
about him than any other ancient writer, except for Cicero and St Augustine,3 but at the
same time, Rousseau concludes that he was ‘probably rather odd’,4 and suggests that ‘he
never gave the impression of having found a settled point of view’.5 However, despite
Rousseau’s assessment, Basil had a ‘far-ranging legacy’6 and it is a testament to the
man’s ascetic and philanthropic lifestyle, plus his efforts on behalf of orthodoxy within
the church, that only 70 years after his death, the Council of Churches at Chalcedon
declared him to have been ‘the greatest of the fathers.’7

Basil was born in AD 330 in Caesarea as the eldest son to Basil and Emmelia. They
would go on to have eight more children, of whom three became bishops and five were
eventually canonised.8 Basil the Elder was a ‘sophist rhetorician’ of some standing in
Caesarea,9 and both he and his wife were the children and grandchildren of Christians
and celebrated the fact that their family had been persecuted in the days before
Constantine’s conversion to Christianity.10 Basil’s maternal grandmother, the elder
Macrina had been connected with Gregory Thaumaturgus, and in Ep. 204 and 223 he
details his upbringing and Christian education in her capable hands.11

1 GNaz, Or. 43 (PG 36.493-605) and GNys, In laudem fratris Basilii (PG 46.788-817).
2 Socrates, HE 4.26.
3 Anthony Meredith, The Cappadocians (New York: St Vladimir's Seminary Press, 1995) 20.
4 Philip Rousseau, Basil of Caesarea (Berkeley: University of California Press, 1994) xiii.
5 Ibid. 1.
6 Stephen M. Hildebrand, The Trinitarian Theology of Basil of Caesarea: a synthesis of Greek thought
and biblical truth (Washington, D.C.: Catholic University of America Press, 2007) preface.
7 Richard Travers Smith, St Basil the Great (London: SPCK, 1879) 46.
8 In addition to Basil, GNys and Peter of Sebaste had careers in the church. These three all became saints,
as well as their brother Naucratius who lived a life of ascetic seclusion and their sister Macrina.
9 P. J. Fedwick, "Basil of Caesarea on education," in Atti del Congresso internazionale su Basilio di
Cesarea, la sua età e il Basilianesimo in Sicilia (Università degli studi di Messina, Facoltà di Lettere e
Filosofia, 3-6 dicembre 1979), I (Centro di Studi umanistici, 1983) 582, and Rousseau, Basil 5.
10 See Rousseau, Basil 3-5 for the regard in which Basil and his family held their distinguished Christian
ancestors. GNaz, Or. 43.5-8.
11 Ep. 204.6 and 223.3.
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Although he was a Christian, Basil was educated in the manner typical of a wealthy
young man of the time, probably by his father in Caesarea,12 then by Libanius in
Constantinople13 and finally by the eminent Prohaeresius and Himerius in the centre of
learning and philosophy itself, Athens.14 He spent five years on the final stages of his
education,15 before returning to Caesarea with the intention to become a teacher of
rhetoric himself.16

The education of the fourth century
Basil’s educational career, which spanned so many years, was typical of the time in its
methods, but the extent of Basil’s experience was not common to the majority of
schoolboys, whether pagan or Christian.17 As a member of the wealthy elite, Basil and
his peers had the privilege of an extensive education and access to the best teachers at
all stages of the school curriculum, and this section will detail the practices involved in
the education of young nobles to prepare them for their place within the wider world.18

12 GNaz, Or. 43.12.
13 GNaz, Or. 43.14 on Basil’s going to Byzantium. See Raffaella Cribiore, The School of Libanius in Late
Antique Antioch (Princeton: Princeton University Press, 2008) 100-104 for a discussion about Basil’s
relationship with Libanius and their subsequent correspondence. Also Rousseau, Basil 57-60.
14 Rousseau, Basil 31. Assessments of the cultural and educational standing of the city in the fourth
century vary. Raffaella Cribiore, "The Value of a Good Education: Libanius and Public Authority," in A
Companion to Late Antiquity, ed. Philip Rousseau (2009) 235 suggests that Athens was a desired school
destination because of its former reputation rather than as a result of any superlative teachers and
intellectual thought at the time, while Nigel Guy Wilson, Scholars of Byzantium, [Duckworth classical,
medieval, and renaissance editions] (London: Duckworth, 1983) 36 maintains that the city was ‘probably
at its peak in the fourth century’ with large numbers of teachers who attracted students from all over the
empire.
15 349-355.
16 GNys, VMac. 966c.
17 For the vast majority of males in antiquity Basil’s experience of schooling would have been totally
alien, since most could only afford the most basic level of learning. Literacy was considered to be the
most effective means for the lower classes in society to achieve some degree of wealth and power
(Libanius, Or. 42.23-25; JChrys, Adv. Opp. 3.5), and for this reason parents strove to send their children
to school. However, while William V. Harris, Ancient Literacy (Cambridge, Mass.: Harvard University
Press, 1989) 289 suggests that there were some ‘elementary schools accessible to fairly poor people’, he
also maintains that ‘it should not …be thought that the system sent large numbers of the sons of the poor
to school.’
18 The standard work on ancient education has long been Henri Irenee Marrou,
aris ditions du Seuil, 1948 , but for more recent publications which include detail
about fourth century AD see Robert A. Kaster, Guardians of Language: the grammarian and society in
Late Antiquity, The Transformation of the Classical Heritage; 11 (Berkeley: University of California
Press, 1988) and Raffaella Cribiore, Gymnastics of the mind: Greek education in Hellenistic and Roman
Egypt (Princeton, N.J.: Princeton University Press, 2001) . See also Ronald F. Hock, "Homer in Greco-
Roman Education," in Mimesis and intertextuality in antiquity and Christianity, ed. Dennis Ronald
MacDonald (Harrisburg, Pa.: Trinity Press International, 2001) 69 for the aim of education.
2
There were broadly three stages in the Roman education system, closely modelled on
those established in Classical Greece.19 Schooling began for boys20 around the age of 7,
when they started to attend classes with the primary teacher, the grammatistes. The aim
of this first level of education was for the child to acquire a knowledge of basic literacy
and numeracy,21 and boys practised their letters by copying the names of gods and
heroes from classical literature.22 Jerome recommends that a ‘set of letters made of
boxwood or ivory’ should be bought for the young girl Paula so that she could become
familiar with the sounds and shapes through her play.23 However, his suggestion that the
training given to aula should be enjoyable seems a marked contrast to Augustine’s
recollections of his schooldays, about which he says ‘I was put to school to get
learning, of which I (worthless as I was) knew not what use there was; and yet, if slow
to learn, I was flogged!’24 Given that corporal punishment appears to have been a
certain feature in ancient schools, Augustine’s experience was perhaps more common
than that imagined by Jerome.25 At this basic level students became familiar with
Homer, in part because of his use for copying exercises, but they also read a smattering
of Euripides and learned quotations from Isocrates.26

For the second stage of education a pupil went to the grammarian where he practised
‘reading aloud’,27 and began his real foray into literature. At this level he read and
memorised a considerable amount of Homer,28 as well as becoming particularly familiar
with Hesiod,29 Euripides30 and Menander,31 in addition to encountering other poets.

19 Marrou, 265. Cribiore, Gymnastics 2 points out that although
the literary sources show ‘three well-defined stages of schooling supervised by different teachers,’ in
reality the system was ‘more fluid’ than has been maintained. However, despite her assertion that
‘organisation, structure, teachers’ functions, and even contents of the curriculum … depended on
situational circumstances’ she continues to refer to the usual division of classes as being ‘broadly
realistic’. The point to remember is that there were few hard and fast rules about the ages of children in
the different stages of education.
20 There is evidence to suggest that girls could also attend primary schools (Martial, Epigrammata
IX.68.2), but the number of female pupils was probably very small, and most did not continue to the later
stages. Wealthy girls would have had tutors to teach them basic reading and writing. See Jerome, Ep.
107.4 on the education of Paula and GNys, VMac. 962d-964a on his mother’s emphasis on biblical
studies as the most appropriate education for Christian women.
21 Cribiore, Gymnastics 50.
22 Henri Ir Marrou, A History of Education in Antiquity (New York,: Sheed and Ward, 1956) 162; Hock,
"Homer in Greco-Roman Education," 62.
23 Ep. 107.4
24 Confessions 9.14.
25 Marrou, History of Education 272.
26 Cribiore, Gymnastics 179.
27 Ibid.190.
28 See ibid.194 and Xenophon, Symposium 3.5 for the high regard in which Homer was held in antiquity.
29 Ibid.197.
30 Ibid.198.
3
Laistner and Marrou suggest that during their time with the grammarian students would
have ‘become … acquainted with prose literature’,32 but Cribiore maintains that
although ‘a good knowledge of prose writers was part of the cultural baggage of a
grammarian his students actually approached literature almost exclusively though poetic
works. Education had always been strictly connected to criticism and interpretation of
the poets.’33 To supplement their literary studies, students would also learn about
grammar and the intricate workings of language and style.34

For many students, contact with the grammarian marked the culmination of their
education, but this was not necessarily seen as a disadvantage. The school system had
no method of formal examination, and rather than trying to ensure that all pupils
reached the same standard, ‘teachers aimed at leading each student up to the level of
literacy demanded by that pupil’s place in the social and economic pyramid’.35 Few of
those who learned from the grammarian continued to the classes of the rhetor, and it did
not matter greatly. The experience of the second level of education was a common one
to members of the upper class in society and marked an individual out as a man of taste
and culture.36 It set him on the road to his future career,37 and ‘provided entry into the
network of personal relationships and patronage that could lead to wealth, offices and
good marriages.’38

The third level of education, the study of rhetoric, was accessible to only the very few,
elite, wealthy students,39 and began when a boy reached around 14 or 15 years old.
Although the fundamental shaping of a student’s mind was carried out by the
grammarian, ‘a rhetorical education provided an entrée to positions of power,’40 and

31 For the ‘four pillars’ of classical education see M. L. W. Laistner, Christianity and Pagan Culture in
the Later Roman Empire (New York: Cornell University Press, 1951; repr., 1967; 1978) 11 and Wilson,
Scholars of Byzantium 19.
32 Laistner, Christianity and Pagan Culture 11; Marrou, History of Education 278.
33 Cribiore, Gymnastics 192.
34 For Basil and most others in the Eastern part of the Roman Empire, the language appears to have been
exclusively Greek, but in the West the focus would have been on both languages together (Marrou (1956)
p274-9). Robert Browning, The Emperor Julian (London: Weidenfeld and Nicolson, 1975) 34 asserts
that Julian was well versed in both languages, but Ammianus Marcellinus suggests that his Latin was
adequate for conversation (16.5.7).
35 Cribiore, Gymnastics 44.
36 Ibid. 3; 53.
37 Kaster, Guardians of Language 26; Laistner, Christianity and Pagan Culture 17.
38 Kaster, Guardians of Language 28.
39 Cribiore, Gymnastics 3 ‘class and status – and, to a much lesser extent, merit – determined who
continued’ in education.
40 Ibid. 56; Peter Robert Lamont Brown, Power and Persuasion in Late Antiquity: Towards a Christian
Empire, The Curti lectures; 1988 (Madison, Wis.: University of Wisconsin Press, 1992) 38.
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