Amino Acids and Proteins for the Athlete, The Anabolic Edge

456 Pages·2008·2.88 MB·English

DiPasquale/AminoAcidsandProteinsfortheAthlete:TheAnabolicEdge 43803_C000 FinalProof page i 2.11.2007 3:10pm CompositorName:BMani
Amino Acids and Proteins
for the Athlete
The Anabolic Edge
Second Edition
DiPasquale/AminoAcidsandProteinsfortheAthlete:TheAnabolicEdge 43803_C000 FinalProof page ii 2.11.2007 3:10pm CompositorName:BMani
DiPasquale/AminoAcidsandProteinsfortheAthlete:TheAnabolicEdge 43803_C000 FinalProof page iii 2.11.2007 3:10pm CompositorName:BMani
Amino Acids and Proteins
for the Athlete
The Anabolic Edge
Second Edition
Mauro G. Di Pasquale
CEO, MetabolicDiet.com
Ontario, Canada
DiPasquale/AminoAcidsandProteinsfortheAthlete:TheAnabolicEdge 43803_C000 FinalProof page iv 2.11.2007 3:10pm CompositorName:BMani
CRC Press
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Contents
Preface tothe Second Edition..........................................................................................................xv
Preface tothe First Edition...........................................................................................................xvii
Author.............................................................................................................................................xix
Part I
The Theory
Chapter 1 Proteins and Amino Acids............................................................................................3
Introduction........................................................................................................................................3
Amino Acids......................................................................................................................................4
PeptideLinkage.................................................................................................................................4
Free Amino Acid Pool.......................................................................................................................5
Protein Synthesis................................................................................................................................6
Regulationof Protein Synthesis.....................................................................................................7
FactorsAffecting Protein Synthesisand Catabolism....................................................................9
CellularHydration and Protein Synthesis....................................................................................11
CellularHydration and Amino Acids..........................................................................................12
Nutrients and Protein Synthesis...................................................................................................13
Protein Catabolism...........................................................................................................................14
Adaptive Response toExercise.......................................................................................................15
Exercise-InducedAminoAcid Flux................................................................................................17
References........................................................................................................................................17
Chapter 2 Exerciseand ProteinMetabolism...............................................................................23
Introduction......................................................................................................................................23
Effects of Exercise onProtein Synthesis and Degradation.............................................................24
Effects of Protein and Amino Acids onExercise Performance......................................................24
Hormonal Response toExercise......................................................................................................24
Hormones.........................................................................................................................................26
GrowthHormone.........................................................................................................................27
Growth Hormone andAthletic Performance...........................................................................28
Problems with ExogenousGrowth Hormone..........................................................................30
Effects ofGrowth Hormone onBodyComposition and AthleticPerformance.....................30
GH, IGF-1, Insulin,and Amino Acids Synergism..................................................................31
Nutrientand Hormone Delivery toMuscle.............................................................................32
Growth Hormone andExercise...............................................................................................32
Growth Hormone andEndurance Athletes..............................................................................33
Effects ofGH on Core Temperature and Performance...........................................................33
Effects ofGH on Intramyocellular Triacylglycerol=TriglycerideContent..............................33
Regenerative andCognitive Effects of GH andIGF-1...........................................................34
Effects ofGH on Aging...........................................................................................................34
Growth Hormone Synthesis andSecretion..............................................................................34
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Myostatin.................................................................................................................................35
GH and Myostatin....................................................................................................................36
Insulin-Like Growth Factor 1......................................................................................................37
GH and IGF-1 Synergism........................................................................................................40
Mechano Growth Factor..........................................................................................................42
Insulin...........................................................................................................................................43
Insulin’s Controversial Effects on Protein Synthesisand Degradation...................................45
Insulinand NutrientDelivery..................................................................................................46
Insulin,GH, and IGF-1 Synergism..........................................................................................47
Thyroid Hormones.......................................................................................................................48
Thyroid Hormones and Protein Metabolism...........................................................................50
Thyroid Hormone and Other Hormones..................................................................................51
Testosterone.................................................................................................................................52
Stress andTestosterone Levels................................................................................................53
Exercise and Testosterone Levels............................................................................................53
Catabolic Hormones.....................................................................................................................55
Effect ofthe CatabolicHormones on SkeletalMuscle Catabolism........................................55
Catecholamines............................................................................................................................56
Effects ofCatecholamines on ProteinMetabolism.................................................................57
Glucagon......................................................................................................................................58
GlucagonandInsulin...............................................................................................................59
Cortisol.........................................................................................................................................60
Cortisol, AminoAcids, and Other Hormones.........................................................................61
Testosterone toCortisol Ratio.................................................................................................61
Testosterone toCortisol Ratio and Exercise............................................................................62
Effect ofDietary Nutrients on Testosterone and theTestosterone
to Cortisol Ratio.......................................................................................................................63
Cytokines andMuscle Protein Synthesis.........................................................................................64
Eicosanoids andMuscle Protein Synthesis......................................................................................66
Hormonal Effects of Amino Acids..................................................................................................69
References........................................................................................................................................70
Chapter 3 Energy Metabolism...................................................................................................107
Introduction....................................................................................................................................107
EnergySensing..............................................................................................................................108
Metabolic PathwaysProducing ATP.............................................................................................108
Anaerobic EnergyProduction........................................................................................................108
Cytoplasmic Anaerobic Substrate-LevelPhosphorylation........................................................108
Anaerobic Mitochondrial Phosphorylation................................................................................109
Aerobic EnergyProduction...........................................................................................................109
TCA Cycle.................................................................................................................................110
Role of Protein and Amino Acidsin Energy Metabolism............................................................111
Fate ofDietary Protein...................................................................................................................112
ProteinContributionto Energy Metabolism..................................................................................113
Amino Acid Catabolism................................................................................................................113
Oxidation ofAminoAcids............................................................................................................113
Gluconeogenesis............................................................................................................................115
Amino Acids and Gluconeogenesis...........................................................................................116
Hormonal Control of Gluconeogenesis.....................................................................................117
Effects ofAmino Acids on Hepatic Glucose Metabolism............................................................118
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Use of Amino Acidsfor Energy—Catabolic Effects of Exercise.................................................118
Amino Acid Metabolism in Muscle..........................................................................................119
Pathwaysof Amino Acid Metabolism inMuscle.....................................................................119
SkeletalMuscleCatabolism.......................................................................................................119
Oxidation ofAmino Acids........................................................................................................120
Glucogenic and KetogenicAminoAcids......................................................................................122
Glucogenic Amino Acids...........................................................................................................123
Metabolized toAKG,Pyruvate,Oxaloacetate,Fumarate, or Succinyl-CoA........................123
Ketogenic Amino Acids.............................................................................................................124
Metabolized toAcetyl-CoA or Acetoacetate.........................................................................124
Alanine and Glutamine..................................................................................................................124
Interorgan Exchangeof Amino Acids...........................................................................................125
Protein Metabolism andAmmonia................................................................................................126
Metabolism of Ammonia...........................................................................................................126
Urea Formation by theLiver.....................................................................................................128
High LevelsofProtein Intake and Ammonia............................................................................129
Low-Carbohydrate, High-ProteinDiets andEnergyMetabolism.................................................130
Metabolic Advantage of aHigh-Protein, Low-CarbohydrateDiet...........................................130
Dietary Calories from Macronutrients.......................................................................................130
Low-Carbohydrate Controversy.................................................................................................131
Conclusions and Recommendations..........................................................................................132
References......................................................................................................................................133
Chapter 4 Dietary Protein andAminoAcids............................................................................139
Effects of Protein on Dietary Intake and Appetite........................................................................139
Classification ofProteins...............................................................................................................139
SimpleProteins..........................................................................................................................139
Conjugated Proteins...................................................................................................................140
Functionsof Proteins.....................................................................................................................141
Growth.......................................................................................................................................141
Maintenance...............................................................................................................................141
Regulatory..................................................................................................................................141
Energy........................................................................................................................................142
Coagulationand Denaturation.......................................................................................................142
Protein Digestion, Absorption,and Metabolism...........................................................................142
Requirement for Dietary Protein—Amino Acid Needs.................................................................144
Qualityof Proteins.........................................................................................................................144
Slow and Fast Dietary Proteins.....................................................................................................145
Effects of Dietary Protein on Protein Metabolism........................................................................147
Protein Quality—Amino Acid Requirements................................................................................147
Vegetarian Diets.............................................................................................................................149
Types of Vegetarians.................................................................................................................150
Nutritional Quality of VegetarianDiets.....................................................................................150
Vegetarian Food Guide—Basic Four Food Groups..................................................................151
Supplying RequiredNutrients...................................................................................................152
Nutritional Considerations ofVegetarians.................................................................................152
Special Nutrient Needs of Vegetarians..................................................................................152
Vegetarian Athletes....................................................................................................................153
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Common Vitaminand Mineral Deficiencies.............................................................................153
Specific Nutritional Needs of Vegetarians.................................................................................154
Protein........................................................................................................................................154
Ensuring Adequate and High-Quality Protein...........................................................................154
ComplementaryProteins............................................................................................................154
Nutritional Responses toCombining TwoDietary Proteins.....................................................156
Nutritional Supplements and theVegetarian Athlete................................................................157
Creatine......................................................................................................................................158
Food Processing.............................................................................................................................158
Measuring Protein Quality.............................................................................................................158
ProteinEfficiency Ratio.............................................................................................................158
Biological Value........................................................................................................................159
ProteinDigestibility Corrected Amino Acid Score...................................................................160
Dietary Protein Requirements........................................................................................................161
How Was theRDA Established?...................................................................................................163
Recommended Daily Intakes forAthletes.....................................................................................164
Historical Overview...................................................................................................................164
Effects ofExercise on Dietary ProteinRequirements...................................................................165
Protein(Nitrogen) Balance........................................................................................................168
Effect ofDietary Protein on Protein Metabolism......................................................................170
Amino Acid Metabolism...........................................................................................................171
The Dietary Protein Paradox—The ProbableNeed forProteinand Amino
AcidSupplements Even inDiets High inDietary Protein....................................................172
ProteinNeeds inCalorie-Restricted Diets.................................................................................174
References......................................................................................................................................174
Chapter 5 Protein Foods versus Protein andAminoAcid Supplements..................................185
Hydrolysates—Comparison to Whole Protein andIntactWhole-ProteinSupplements...............186
Whey ProteinHydrolysates and theAthlete.................................................................................187
BV ofWheyHydrolysates.............................................................................................................188
Whey Proteinand the Immune System.........................................................................................188
Effects ofWhey Proteinon Glutathione Levels............................................................................188
Whey and Casein andAntigenicity—Advantages ofHydrolysates..............................................189
Whey Protein—Conclusions..........................................................................................................190
Free-Form Amino Acidsversus Di-andTripeptides....................................................................190
PracticalGuide to CommercialAminoAcid Preparations............................................................191
Free-Form Amino AcidMixtures..............................................................................................192
Peptide-Bonded Aminos............................................................................................................192
Factors Affecting Amino Acid Bioavailability..............................................................................192
Role of Amino AcidSupplementation inMuscle Hypertrophy andStrength..............................193
References......................................................................................................................................194
Chapter 6 Physiological andPharmacologicalActions ofAminoAcids.................................197
Introduction....................................................................................................................................197
Central Nervous System Effects of Amino Acids.........................................................................199
Effects ofAmino Acids on Growth Hormone Release.................................................................200
Hepatoprotectantand CytoprotectiveEffects ofAmino Acids.....................................................201
References......................................................................................................................................201
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Chapter 7 Essential Amino Acids.............................................................................................207
Use of Essential Amino Acidsafter Training Increases24 h Protein Balance.............................207
Branched-ChainAmino Acids: Isoleucine,Leucine, and Valine..................................................208
BCAAsandMuscle Hypertrophy..............................................................................................212
BCAAsandHypoxia.................................................................................................................213
Regulationof Muscle ProteinSynthesis byLeucine.................................................................213
Leucine and Body Composition................................................................................................214
Branched-ChainKeto Acids......................................................................................................215
a-KetoisocaproicAcid...............................................................................................................215
b-Hydroxy-b-Methylbutyrate....................................................................................................216
Lysine.............................................................................................................................................218
L-Carnitine..................................................................................................................................218
L-Carnitine Metabolism..........................................................................................................219
L-Carnitine Functions.............................................................................................................220
LCAR Effects on Body Composition and Exercise Performance.........................................221
L-Carnitine andCholine.........................................................................................................224
Acetyl-L-Carnitine......................................................................................................................224
Cognitive and Antiaging Effects of ALCAR........................................................................226
Methionine.....................................................................................................................................227
S-Adenosyl-L-Methionine..........................................................................................................229
Creatine..........................................................................................................................................229
CreatineSupplementation..........................................................................................................230
CreatineSupplementation Combined with OtherIngredients...................................................232
CreatineandCaffeine................................................................................................................232
Phenylalanine.................................................................................................................................233
Threonine.......................................................................................................................................233
Tryptophan.....................................................................................................................................233
References......................................................................................................................................235
Chapter 8 Conditionally Essential AminoAcids......................................................................253
L-Arginine......................................................................................................................................253
L-Arginine and Nitric Oxide......................................................................................................255
L-Arginine and theAthlete.........................................................................................................256
Thiamin,Arginine, Caffeine, andCitricAcidCombination.....................................................258
Recoveryand AthleticInjuries..................................................................................................258
PossibleErgolyticEffects ofNitricOxide................................................................................258
L-Arginine and Caffeine.............................................................................................................258
L-Citrulline.....................................................................................................................................259
Citrulline Malate........................................................................................................................260
L-Cysteine.......................................................................................................................................260
N-Acetylcysteine............................................................................................................................261
L-Glutamine....................................................................................................................................262
GlutamineMetabolism...............................................................................................................263
Anabolic and Anticatabolic Effects of Glutamine.....................................................................263
Glutamineand Cortisol..............................................................................................................264
Anabolic Effects of Glutamine..................................................................................................266
Glutamineand AthleticPerformance.........................................................................................267
Glutamineand Overtraining......................................................................................................269
Oral GlutamineSupplementation...............................................................................................270