American Military History. Volume II / Американская военная история в 2 томах

574 Pages·15.852 MB·English

by  Richard W. Stewart.

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ARMY HISTORICAL SERIES
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Second Edition
Richard W. Stewart
General Editor
Center of Military History
United States Army
Washington, D.C., 2010
Library of Congress Cataloging-in-Publication Data
American military history / Richard W. Stewart, general editor. — 2nd ed.
p. cm. — (Army historical series)
Includes bibliographical references and index.
1. United States—History, Military. 2. United States. Army—History. I. Stewart,
Richard W. (Richard Winship), 1951– II. Center of Military History. III. Title. IV.
Series.
E181.A44 2009
355’.00973—dc22 2009011595
Revised Edition — First Printed 2005—CMH Pub 30–22
Army Historical Series
Advisory Committee
(As of October 2009)
Reina J. Pennington Mark P. Parillo
Norwich University Kansas State University
William T. Allison Larry Stubblefield
Georgia Southern University Deputy Administrative Assistant to the Secretary of
the Army
James J. Carafano
The Heritage Foundation
Col. Bobby A. Towery
U.S. Army War College
Brig. Gen. Edward C. Cardon
U.S. Army Command and General
Staff College Lt. Gen. David P. Valcourt
U.S. Army Training and Doctrine
Brig. Gen. Patrick Finnegan Command
U.S. Military Academy
Steve Vogel
John F. Guilmartin The Washington Post
Ohio State University
Paul M. Wester Jr.
Michael S. Neiberg National Archives and Records
The University of Southern Mississippi Administration
U.S. Army Center of Military History
Jeffrey J. Clarke, Chief of Military History
Chief Historian Richard W. Stewart
Chief, Histories Division Joel D. Meyerson
Editor in Chief Keith R. Tidman
iii
iv
C
ontents
Page
Foreword .................................................................... xv
Preface ...................................................................... xvii
Preface to the 2005 Edition ...................................................... xix
Prologue: The War in Europe, 1914–1917 .......................................... 1
Chapter
1. The U.S. Army in World War I, 1917–1918 ...................................... 7
The U.S. Army Arrives in Europe ............................................ 8
Organizing the American Expeditionary Forces ................................. 11
The War Effort in the United States .......................................... 18
The AEF Settles In ........................................................ 24
German Offensives and the AEF’s First Battles ................................. 27
Americans Help Stem the Tide, May–July 1918 ................................. 31
The Growing AEF ........................................................ 35
The AEF in the Aisne-Marne Campaign, July–August 1918 ....................... 36
An American Army and St. Mihiel, September 1918 ............................. 40
The Meuse-Argonne Campaign, September–November 1918 ..................... 43
The American Army and the Great War ....................................... 51
2. Between World Wars ........................................................ 55
Demobilization ........................................................... 56
Immediate Duties ......................................................... 57
Reorganization under the National Defense Act of 1920 ......................... 59
Regular Army Strength and Support .......................................... 60
The Reserve Components .................................................. 62
The Army Air Corps. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 63
Domestic Employment .................................................... 64
National and Military Policy ................................................. 66
The Army Strengthened .................................................... 68
The Beginnings of World War II ............................................. 71
The Prewar Mobilization ................................................... 72
Toward War .............................................................. 74
3. World War II: The Defensive Phase ............................................ 79
The Outbreak of War: Action and Reaction .................................... 79
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Chapter Page
Strategic Decisions ........................................................ 85
The Fall of the Philippines .................................................. 91
Deploying American Military Strength ........................................ 95
Planning for a Cross-Channel Invasion ........................................ 99
torcH Replaces sledGeHAmmer/roundup ..................................... 102
End of the Defensive Stage ................................................. 103
4. Grand Strategy and the Washington High Command ............................. 107
Strategic Planning for Offensive Warfare: Midwar ............................... 107
Completing the Strategic Patterns ............................................ 115
Expansion and Distribution of the Wartime Army .............................. 118
Balancing Means and Ends ................................................. 126
5. World War II: The War against Germany and Italy ................................ 133
North Africa, November 1942–May 1943 ...................................... 133
The Tunisia Campaign, November 1942–May 1943 .............................. 138
The Sicily Campaign, July–August 1943 ....................................... 141
The Surrender of Italy ..................................................... 143
The Italian Campaign, September 1943–May 1945 .............................. 143
Cross-Channel Attack ...................................................... 146
Buildup and Breakout ...................................................... 149
Invasion of Southern France ................................................ 153
Pursuit to the Frontier ..................................................... 153
The Ardennes Counteroffensive ............................................. 159
The Russian Campaigns .................................................... 162
The Final Offensive ....................................................... 163
The Situation on V-E Day .................................................. 164
6. World War II: The War against Japan ........................................... 169
Japan’s Strategy ........................................................... 169
Guadalcanal and Papua: The First Offensives ................................... 170
Search for a Strategy ....................................................... 173
cArtwHeel: The Encirclement of Rabaul ...................................... 175
The Central Pacific Drive Begins ............................................. 180
Acceleration of the Pacific Drive ............................................. 182
The Decision To Invade Luzon .............................................. 186
The Philippines Campaign .................................................. 187
Iwo Jima and Okinawa ..................................................... 192
The American Effort in China, Burma, and India ............................... 195
The Japanese Surrender .................................................... 198
Retrospect ............................................................... 199
7. Peace Becomes Cold War, 1945–1950 .......................................... 203
Demobilization ........................................................... 204
Unification ............................................................... 206
Occupation .............................................................. 208
The Rise of a New Opponent ............................................... 210
The Trends of Military Policy ............................................... 214
The Army of 1950 ........................................................ 215
The Cold War Intensifies ................................................... 217
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Chapter Page
8. The Korean War, 1950–1953 ................................................. 221
The Decision for War ...................................................... 222
South to the Naktong ...................................................... 226
North to the Parallel ....................................................... 231
North to the Yalu ......................................................... 232
The New War ............................................................ 236
The Static War ............................................................ 244
The Aftermath ........................................................... 250
9. The Army of the Cold War: From the “New Look” to Flexible Response. . . . . . . . . . . . . 255
Massive Retaliation and the New Look ........................................ 255
The NATO Buildup ....................................................... 256
Continental Defense ....................................................... 257
The Missile Era ........................................................... 258
Challenges and Responses .................................................. 259
The Military Budget ....................................................... 261
Defense Reorganization .................................................... 262
A Dual-Capability Army .................................................... 263
The Reserve Forces ........................................................ 265
The Changing Face of the Cold War .......................................... 267
Cuba and Berlin .......................................................... 268
Detente in Europe ........................................................ 271
A Growing Commitment to Underdeveloped Areas ............................. 272
Trouble in the Caribbean ................................................... 273
Civil Rights and Civil Disturbances ........................................... 274
Secretary McNamara and the New Management System .......................... 277
Army Reorganization ...................................................... 278
Tactical Readjustment for Flexible Response ................................... 280
The Reserve Forces and the Draft ............................................ 283
Problems and Prospects .................................................... 285
10. The U.S. Army in Vietnam: Background, Buildup, and Operations, 1950–1967 ......... 289
The Emergence of South Vietnam ........................................... 290
The Rise of the Viet Cong .................................................. 294
A New American President Takes Charge ..................................... 297
Counterinsurgency Falters .................................................. 302
Setting the Stage for Confrontation ........................................... 304
Groundwork for Combat: Buildup and Strategy ................................. 309
The Highlands, 1965 ....................................................... 311
Defending Saigon, 1965–1967 ............................................... 314
II Corps Battles, 1966–1967 ................................................. 324
Progress or Stalemate? ..................................................... 329
11. The U.S. Army in Vietnam: From Tet to the Final Withdrawal, 1968–1975 ............ 337
The Tet Offensive ......................................................... 339
Vietnamization ........................................................... 345
Military Operations, 1968–1969 .............................................. 349
Cross-border Operations ................................................... 354
Withdrawal: The Final Battles ............................................... 362
An Assessment ........................................................... 368
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Chapter Page
12. Rebuilding the Army: Vietnam to desert storm ................................. 373
The All-Volunteer Force .................................................... 374
The Total Force Policy ..................................................... 379
New Doctrine ............................................................ 381
New Equipment .......................................................... 383
New Organizations ........................................................ 389
New Training ............................................................ 393
Military Operations for the Post-Vietnam Army ................................ 396
El Salvador ............................................................ 397
Grenada .............................................................. 399
Invasion of Panama ..................................................... 401
The Army at the End of the Cold War ........................................ 407
13. Beyond the Wall: Operations in a Post–Cold War World, 1990–2001 ................. 413
War in the Persian Gulf .................................................... 416
Striving for Strategic Mobility ............................................... 427
Northern Iraq: Operation proVide comfort ................................... 430
Somalia ................................................................. 433
Haiti .................................................................... 437
Multinational Operations ................................................... 440
The Breakup of Yugoslavia ................................................. 443
Kosovo ................................................................. 450
Army Transformation ...................................................... 455
Conclusion .............................................................. 459
14. The Global War on Terrorism ................................................. 463
Homeland Security ........................................................ 464
Afghanistan: The War against the Taliban and al-Qaeda .......................... 468
Global Operations ........................................................ 474
Back to Iraq .............................................................. 480
Phase IV ................................................................ 490
The Doctrine ............................................................. 504
The Surge ............................................................... 506
Back to Afghanistan ....................................................... 508
Transforming While at War ................................................. 512
Conclusion .............................................................. 516
Abbreviations ................................................................. 519
Map Symbols ................................................................. 521
Index ........................................................................ 523
Charts
No.
1. PAVN Infiltration of the South: 1965–1975 ..................................... 338
2. Total Army Structure, September 30, 1990 ...................................... 393
3. Organization of a Modular Infantry Brigade, September 2004 ...................... 514
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Page
Maps
No.
1. Western Front, September 1914–March 1918 .................................... 4
2. Western Front, 20 March–11 November 1918 .................................... 16
3. Western Front, Meuse-Argonne Offensive, 26 September–11 November 1918 ......... 46
4. Southern Approaches to Europe ............................................... 136
5. D-Day, 6 June 1944 ......................................................... 150
6. Northern Europe ........................................................... 156
7. Battle of the Bulge, The Last German Offensive, 16–25 December 1944 .............. 160
8. The Pacific Axes of Advance, 1942–1945 ........................................ 176
9. New Guinea Operations, 22 April–30 July 1944. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 184
10. The Philippine Campaign .................................................... 190
11. Operation iceberG: Tenth Army Invasion of Okinawa, 1–16 April 1945 .............. 194
12. The Korean Conflict, 1950–1951 .............................................. 225
13. The Stabilized Front, 1952–1953 .............................................. 251
14. Indochina, 1961 ............................................................ 291
15. Battle of the Ia Drang, November 1965 ......................................... 312
16. III Corps Tactical Zone, 1965–1967 ............................................ 315
17. IV Corps Tactical Zone, 1965–1967 ............................................ 323
18. I Corps Tactical Zone, 1965–1967 ............................................. 325
19. II Corps Tactical Zone, 1965–1967 ............................................. 327
20. Tet Offensive, 1968 ......................................................... 341
21. Cambodian Incursion, May–June 1970 .......................................... 356
22. lAm son 719, February 1971 .................................................. 360
23. Easter Offensive, March–May 1972 ............................................ 365
24. The Final Days, 1975 ........................................................ 369
25. Operation urGent fury, October–December 1983 ............................... 400
26. Operation Just cAuse, D-day, Panama Canal, 20 December 1989,
and D-day: Rio Hato ........................................................ 404
27. Unified Command Areas, 1990 ................................................ 408
28. Major U.S. Combat Units at the End of the Cold War, Germany, 1990 ................ 414
29. Operation desert storm, 24–28 February 1991 .................................. 422
30. Mogadishu, 3–4 October 1993 ................................................ 436
31. Operation upHold democrAcy, 19 September 1994–31 March 1995,
and United Nations Mission, 31 March 1995–February 1996, Haiti .................. 441
32. Bosnia and Herzegovina Stabilization Force (SFOR), February–March 2002 ........... 448
33. Kosovo Force (KFOR) Sectors, Serbia, and Kosovo Autonomous Province, May 2002 .. 454
34. Major U.S. Operations, Afghanistan, October 2001–March 2002 ..................... 471
35. Operation AnAcondA, Afghanistan, March 2002 .................................. 479
36. Invasion of Iraq, Operation irAqi freedom, 21 March–9 April 2003 ................. 484
37. Initial Occupation Zones, Operation irAqi freedom, 1 June 2003 ................... 492
Illustrations
Lt. Benjamin Foulois ........................................................... 3
President Woodrow Wilson ...................................................... 8
Capt. Harry S. Truman .......................................................... 8
Men Wanted for the U.S. Army (Coastal Artillery) ....................................... 10
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