American Eras: Early American Civilizations and Exploration to 1600 (American Eras)

302 Pages·1998·45.59 MB·English

by  Gretchen D. Starr-Lebeau

AMERICAN
ERAS
EARLY AMERICAN CIVILIZATIONS
AND EXPLORATION TO 1 6OO
EDITED BY
GRETCHEN D. STARR-LEBEAU
A MANLY, INC. BOOK
GALE
DETROIT LONDON
AMERICAN
ERAS
EARLY AMERICAN CIVILIZATIONS
AND EXPLORATION TO 16OO
Matthew J. Bruccoli and Richard Layman, Editorial Directors
Karen L. Rood, Senior Editor
ADVISORY BOARD
MARTHA FELDMANN LINDA MURDOCK
University of Memphis Providence Day School
Memphis, Tennessee Charlotte, North Carolina
CATHY CHAUVETTE
Sherwood Library
GWEN ICKSTADT Alexandria, Virginia HILDA WEISBURG
La Jolla High School Morristown High School
La Jolla, California Morristown, New Jersey
Copyright ©1998 by Gale Research
ISBN 0-7876-1478-5
CONTENTS
INTRODUCTION VII
ACKNOWLEDGMENTS XI
Chapter 1:
WORLD EVENTS 3
Chapter 2:
AMERICAS: THE PEOPLE 21
Chapter 3:
THE ARTS 55
Chapter 4:
COMMUNICATIONS 77
Chapter 5:
EDUCATION 103
Chapter 6:
GOVERNMENT 8c LAW 115
Chapter 7:
LIFESTYLES, SOCIAL TRENDS, & RECREATION. . . 155
Chapter 8:
RELIGION 175
Chapter 9:
SCIENCE, MEDICINE & TECHNOLOGY 203
Chapter 10:
TRADE 8c COMMERCE 237
Chapter 11:
WARFARE 253
GENERAL REFERENCES 281
CONTRIBUTORS 285
GENERAL INDEX 287
INDEX OF PHOTOGRAPHS 293
CONTENTS v
INTRODUCTION
Diversity of Native Populations. From the first con- fifteenth century. Shifts in political and military power,
tacts between Europeans and North American Indians to which are often easiest for archeologists, anthropolo-
the present day, the area which today is the United States gists, and historians to detect, were also apparent in the
and Canada has been home to thousands of indigenous southeast and west. The impressive rise and decline of
populations. Although most researchers have concluded Cahokia, a large Native American city near what is now
that Native Americans came to the Western Hemisphere St. Louis, is only one example. It cannot be denied, how-
via a land bridge from Asia, this does not mean that all ever, that even in this period, when Europeans numbered
indigenous peoples shared a common language or cul- at most one thousand among the millions of indigenous
ture. Differences in climate and history created marked people, the presence of western European traders, fisher-
distinctions among native groups. In the northern men, soldiers, and a few settlers had a profound impact
reaches of the continent, in what is today much of east- upon indigenous life in North America. Trade with
ern Canada and northern New England, the climate was Europeans, usually Basque or Breton fishermen, in-
too cool to permit much agriculture or permanent settle- creased the demand for beaver pelts far beyond what Na-
ment. Instead these populations were nomadic, traveling tive Americans had hunted for themselves. As a result
from place to place to keep ahead of the weather and to new conflicts arose among native populations over who
find food in summer and winter. Plains Indians in the would control the best trapping regions and who would
western part of the continent also led largely nomadic trade with these foreigners. Europeans also introduced
lives, a trend that was heightened by the introduction of new items into the trade routes. Beads, buttons, and
the horse after the arrival of the Spanish. In other parts metal implements such as axes have been found far from
of North America such as southern New England and early European settlement sites, and it is clear that many
the Mid-Atlantic states, Native Americans alternated Indians knew of such goods long before they ever met a
settled communities with periods of mobility. American European. Most devastating for Native Americans,
Indians such as Hurons and Iroquois built settled com- though, was a more dangerous European import: disease.
munities but relocated when fields were exhausted or cli- Native Americans had little natural resistance to Euro-
mate dictated. Hunters also tended to take extensive pean diseases, which often spread along trade routes and,
trips away from the community to hunt or to fight with like axes and beads, made their presence felt before
other tribes in the area. Finally some indigenous groups Europeans actually arrived on the scene. Indeed the
maintained a much more settled, or sedentary, existence. population losses due to these epidemics may well have
The mesa-dwelling Pueblos of the southwest and Mis- precipitated some of the other political and military con-
sissippian chiefdoms of the southeast both established flicts among Indians in the sixteenth century. The slower
more permanent communities with larger populations. pace of change among indigenous societies in the six-
These distinctions, of course, are just one way of distin- teenth century was soon overtaken by change caused, di-
guishing among the many Indian groups. For example, rectly or indirectly, by Europeans.
the Pueblo Indians spoke (and still speak) a radically dif-
Western Europe: A Changing Society. Like Native
ferent language from the Choctaw and other Mississip-
American societies, European societies were also chang-
pian tribes and used different agricultural techniques,
ing in the decades before 1600. The fifteenth century not
dwellings, and ceremonies.
only witnessed Christopher Columbus's historic voyage
Indigenous Societies in Transition. Even before to the Caribbean but also the height of the Renaissance.
Europeans arrived Native American societies were in a From its origins on the Italian peninsula the Renaissance
period of transition. In the northeastern United States brought together new trends in art, science, and technol-
tribes began to form larger confederations for the pur- ogy and witnessed the production of some of the most
pose of mutual defense. The greatest example of this impressive art Western Europe ever produced. Leonardo
were the Mohawks, Oneidas, Onondagas, Cayugas, and da Vinci, who in many ways exemplified the Italian Ren-
Senecas, who formed the League of the Iroquois in the aissance, was a brilliant painter, an inventor, and an
INTRODUCTION v 11
author of treatises on waterworks and military technol- who preceded him. For Columbus, as for many who fol-
ogy. As Europe moved into the sixteenth century, lowed him, financial rewards were a powerful motiva-
though, the wealth and artistic endeavor of the Renais- tion. Columbus sought a route to the lucrative trade cen-
sance was superceded by decades of religious, economic, ters of Asia which would not require him to travel
and political upheaval. Martin Luther and John Calvin through Portuguese-held territory. If he had been suc-
rewrote Europe's religious boundaries, creating new al- cessful, Columbus would have gained himself and his
ternatives to Catholicism. For more than a century Prot- sponsors immense wealth. Later, when it became clear
estantism and Catholicism contested for the souls of that America, too, was a rich land, many explorers and
Europeans, sometimes in armed conflict. Gold and silver colonists went in search of the "next Mexico" or the "next
from Spain's colonies, together with the poor monetary Inca Empire." Much of the exploration of the southeast
policies of some European leaders, created an extended and southwest of the United States in this period was for
period of inflation which decreased the ability of the the express purpose of discovering untold wealth in leg-
population to support itself. Wars further impoverished endary sites such as the "Seven Cities of Gold." Money
the continent. The long Hapsburg-Valois wars between was not the only motivator, however. Religious beliefs,
Spain and France were the most prominent of a series of just as much as financial standing, moved Europeans to
conflicts that stretched from one end of Europe to the extend their reach into the rest of the globe. Columbus,
other. Threats from outside Europe also grew in the six- for instance, hoped to use his new route to Asia to spear-
teenth century. The Ottoman Turks marched on Europe head a crusade. More important than money was the op-
from the Balkans, taking Serbia, Bosnia, Croatia, and portunity to retake Jerusalem for western European
Hungary before they were stopped just beyond Vienna. Christians. One out of every eight people sent by the
In short the period between 1492 and 1600 was one of Spanish government to their various holdings in the
great turmoil in the so-called Old World. Americas was a religious figure—either a priest or one of
the groups of friars and monks dedicated to converting
First Contacts. Columbus was the first person to
the indigenous population. Many of these men believed
bring knowledge of North America to Europe, but he
that the world was coming to an end and that they
was not the first European to reach the Western Hemi-
needed to convert the world so that Jesus Christ could re-
sphere. Northern Europeans had been aware of good
turn to earth. Other Europeans arrived besides the Span-
fishing on both sides of the North Atlantic for centuries.
ish, but their motivations were often closely linked to
Some twentieth-century readers think that Irish legends
Spanish aims. In fact, French and English explorers such
may tell of travel to America, but the first clear evidence
as Sir Francis Drake worked hard both to copy Spanish
of contact between Europeans and American Indians
success and to defeat their European rivals.
comes from the Vikings. In the tenth and eleventh cen-
turies Vikings led by Leif Ericson set up a small colony in
Settlements. Europeans came to what is now the con-
what are now the maritime provinces of Canada, but cold
tinental United States and Canada in the sixteenth cen-
weather, difficult traveling, and hostility from the
tury, but few intended to stay. Most arrived looking for
"skraelings," or Native Americans, forced the Vikings to
trade, easy wealth, or souls for conversion, but some ex-
abandon their site. Contact did continue over the years,
plorers created more-permanent settlements. Trade
however, by means of fishermen from the Atlantic coasts
posts were the least permanent settlements created by
of Spain and France. Fishermen and traders brought
Europeans because trade was usually seasonal, especially
European products to the Americas and in return re-
in northern climes. Military outposts were the first per-
ceived furs, which were both valuable back home and
manent homes that Europeans created for themselves.
easily portable in the small boats fishermen used. These
These sites, known among the Spanish as presidios, were
contacts were consistent enough that a pidgin developed,
designed to protect local settlers and to maintain control
a rudimentary mixture of two or more languages used in
over hostile territory. Presidios were scattered across the
trade. In the early sixteenth century explorers who
southern United States, from Arizona and New Mexico
thought that they were the first Europeans to see this
in the southwest to Florida and South Carolina in the
land were astonished to be greeted by the natives in
southeast. They marked the outer frontier of Spanish co-
French, Basque, and English. It is important to remem-
lonial territory. The presidios not only protected Span-
ber, however, that while these contacts were relatively
iards from Indians who resented their intrusion, but they
frequent, they were not well-known, nor did they occur
also protected Spanish claims from other European pow-
on a large scale. The total number of European fisher-
ers. In the southeast, for example, Spaniards often spent
men who traveled as far as the eastern coast of Canada
as much time fighting the French as they did fighting in-
and New England was quite small, and their deeds were
digenous peoples. European settlement, however, was
little known or recognized in the wider world.
not limited to military garrisons. The explorers also set
Motivations. After Columbus's fateful trip Europe- up missions to begin the conversion of Native Americans
ans began to seek out the Western Hemisphere as a des- in the Spanish territory of the southwest and southeast
tination in its own right. Even Columbus's journey was and in the French-controlled lands of what is now east-
motivated by a larger purpose than that of the fishermen ern Canada. These housed missionaries, usually Jesuits
AMERICAN ERAS: BEFORE 16OO
V I II
or Franciscans, and some native peoples. Missions in the arena. Previously most Americans called this period
sixteenth century achieved mixed results. Some mission- "The Age of Discovery"; now most scholars have rejected
aries did succeed in converting and baptizing Indians, this phrase. After all, the first discoverers of North and
but others failed in the face of active native resistance South America were the Native Americans who crossed
and were forced to leave. The difficulty of the missionar- the Bering Land Bridge millennia ago, and to call Euro-
ies' task is apparent in much of their building; the peans "discoverers" implies that no one else was here.
fortresslike churches resemble military fortifications Some people have responded that it was a discovery to
more than peaceful sites of religious education. Indeed, Europeans and so call it the "European discovery" of the
since missionaries were often among the first Europeans Americas. By the 1970s some people began calling this
to visit an area, their buildings had a military purpose as era "The Invasion of America." This clearly identified
well as a religious one. By the end of the sixteenth cen- Europeans as aggressors, but it implied a conscious,
tury a few Europeans had tried to create more perma- well-formulated plan of attack which did not adequately
nent, stable communities in North America. The En- explain the ad hoc nature of much European activity in
glish built Roanoke, a community designed both to chal- North America. Another group of scholars tried calling
lenge Spanish claims to North America and to serve as a what happened an "encounter." This term avoided de-
base for British military operations. Nearby, in what is scribing European intentions at all, which made the cen-
now South Carolina, French Huguenots constructed tury sound like a series of friendly meetings rather than
Fort Caroline, a refuge from attacks by Catholics in the armed conflict that usually took place. The authors of
France as well as a base of operations from which to har- this volume tend to use other terms. "Exploration" is
ass the Spanish. In what is now Florida the Spanish had used to describe the activities of men such as Coronado
survived attacks from both the French and local indige- and de Soto, and "conquest" describes successful Euro-
nous people to maintain St. Augustine, a military fortifi- pean attacks on native societies.
cation that became the first permanent settlement by Indian or Native American? Another term to come
Europeans in what is now the United States. This should under fire lately is the word "Indian." Columbus, who in-
not suggest that Europeans had successfully colonized sisted to the end of his life that he had reached Asia,
North America. Except for St. Augustine and Santa Fe, called the people he had found Indians since he assumed
New Mexico, all European settlements founded in North that they were natives of the East Indies. Today some
America before 1607 were abandoned by 1625. Moreo- people find the word "Indian" offensive, and other terms
ver, of the approximately 10,000 Spanish, French, Eng- are coming into use. "Native American" is one frequently
lish, and Dutch colonists who had migrated to the At- used phrase. It distinguishes native Americans from
lantic coast of North America by 1625, only about 1,800 European, African, or Asian Americans, but some peo-
remained. ple avoid using it since any person born on the continent,
whatever his or her ancestry, is technically a native
Range of Exploration. Much more common than per-
American. Other people use the phrase "indigenous peo-
manent settlements were exploratory trips designed to
ples," which is more accurate but cumbersome to use. In
help Europeans understand the breadth of the landmass
Canada the official term is "First Nations." Most of the
that Columbus had stumbled upon. These men led their
authors in this book use a variety of phrases to describe
expeditions through unknown territory, far beyond
the peoples living here before the arrival of Europeans.
European settlement, in an attempt to understand the
region and where its wealth lay. Some, such as Ponce de North America in 1600. By 1600 most attempts at
Leon, encountered fierce resistance from the Florida na- permanent settlement had been disastrous, and native
tives he encountered. Others, such as Hernando de Soto populations had successfully repulsed several European
and Francisco Vasquez de Coronado, were remembered military forays. Had they wished, North American Indi-
by generations of American Indians for their vicious ans could have virtually eliminated Europeans from the
treatment of native peoples. On occasion individuals not continent. Few people would have foretold the incredible
success of European colonization only a few short dec-
formally sent by the government provided useful infor-
ades later. Yet the seeds of that success were already pres-
mation. Alvaro Nunez Cabeza de Vaca survived ship-
ent. The growing trade between Europeans and Indians
wreck and the collapse of his superior's expedition, and
had already changed indigenous society and made it
with three other survivors traveled around the Gulf of
more dependent on European goods. European diseases
Mexico in search of Spanish settlements. The book
were already taking their toll on the population, with
which he wrote on his return provided detailed knowl-
other epidemics still to come. And local leaders saw in
edge of the region for the Spanish government.
the Europeans a new advantage in local conflicts which
Discovery, Encounter, or Invasion? For many years had long been at a stalemate. For all these reasons few in-
historians, anthropologists, and archaeologists have de- digenous people were willing to completely expel Euro-
bated what to call these activities by Europeans in North peans, even if such a move had been possible. Native
and South America. Since 1992 and the Colombian Americans still held the balance of power in 1600, but
Quincentennial this debate has moved into the public their dominance on the continent was coming to an end.
INTRODUCTION IX
ACKNOWLEDGMENTS
This book was produced by Manly, Inc. Anthony J. Systems manager is Marie L. Parker.
Scotti was the in-house editor.
Typesetting supervisor is Kathleen M. Flanagan. The
Production manager is Philip B. Dematteis.
typesetting staff includes Pamela D. Norton and Patricia
Office manager is Kathy Lawler Merlette. Flanagan Salisbury.
Administrative support was provided by Ann M.
Walter W. Ross and Steven Gross did library
Cheschi. Bookkeeper is Joyce Fowler.
research. They were assisted by the following librarians
Copyediting supervisor is Samuel W. Bruce. The at the Thomas Cooper Library of the University of South
copyediting staff includes Phyllis A. Avant, Charles Carolina: Linda Holderfield and the interlibrary-loan
Brower, Patricia Coate, Christine Copeland, Thorn staff; reference-department head Virginia Weathers;
Harman, and Nicole M. Nichols. reference librarians Marilee Birchfield, Stefanie Buck,
Editorial associate is Jeff Miller. Stefanie DuBose, Rebecca Feind, Karen Joseph, Donna
Lehman, Charlene Loope, Anthony McKissick, Jean
Layout and graphics staff includes Janet E. Hill and
Rhyne, Kwamine Simpson, and Virginia Weathers;
Mark McEwan.
circulation-department head Caroline Taylor; and
Photography editors are Margaret Meriwether and
acquisitions-searching supervisor David Haggard.
Paul Talbot. Photographic copy work was performed by
Joseph M. Bruccoli.
ACKNOWLEDGMENTS
XI
WORLD EVENTS:
SELECTED OCCURRENCES
OUTSIDE NORTH AMERICA
MAJOR POWERS AND LEADERS V (1585-1590), Urban VII (1590), Gregory XIV
(1590-1591), Innocent IX (1591), Clement VIII
China—Ming Hong Zhi, born Zhu You-Tang
(1592-1605).
(1488-1505), Ming Zheng De, born Zhu Hou-Zhao
(1506-1521), Ming Jia Jing, born Zhu Hou-Cong Poland—John Albert (1492-1501), Alexander
(1522-1566), Ming Long Qing, born Zhu Zai-Hou (1501-1506), Sigmund I (1506-1548), Sigmund II
(1567-1572), Ming Wan-Li, born Zhu Yi-Jun (1548-1572), Interregnum (1572-1573), Henry
(1573-1619). (1573-1574), Interregnum (1575-1576), Stephen
(1575-1586), Interregnum (1586-1587), Sigmund III
Denmark and Norway—John (1481-1513), Christian II,
(1587-1632).
"the Cruel" (1513-1523), Frederick I (1523-1533),
Christian III, "Father of the People" (1534-1558), Portugal—Emanuel the Fortunate (1495-1521), John
Frederick II (1558-1588), Christian IV (1588-1648). II, "the Perfect Prince" (1521-1557), Sebastian I
(1557-1578), Philip I, who was also Philip II of Spain
England—Henry VII (1485-1509), Henry VIII
(1580-1598), Philip II, who was also Philip III of
(1509-1547), Edward VI (1547-1553), Mary
Spain (1598-1621).
(1553-1558), Elizabeth I (1558-1603).
Russia—Ivan III, "the Great" (1462-1505), Basil III
France—Louis XII (1498-1512), Francis I (1515-1547),
(1505-1533), Ivan IV, "the Terrible" (1533-1584),
Henry II (1547-1559), Francis II (1559-1560), Char-
Theodore I (1584-1598), Boris Godunov (1598-1605).
les IX (1560-1574), Henry III (1574-1589), Henry
IV (1589-1610). Spain—Isabel of Castile (1474-1504), Ferdinand of
Aragon (1479-1516), Charles I, who was also Charles
Holy Roman Empire—Maximilian I (1493-1519),
V of the Holy Roman Empire (1516-1556), Philip II
Charles V (1519-1556), Ferdinand I (1556-1564),
(1556-1598), Philip III (1598-1621).
Maximilian II (1564-1576), Rudolph II (1576-1612).
Sweden—Gustav Vasa (1523-1560), Eric XIV (1560-1568),
Hungary and Bohemia—Ladislas II (Hungary,
John III (1568-1592).
1490-1516, Bohemia, 1471-1516), Louis II
(1516-1526), Ferdinand I, Holy Roman Emperor United Provinces of the Netherlands—William I, "the
(1526-1564), Maximilian II, Holy Roman Emperor Silent" (1572-1584), Maurice of Nassau
(1564-1576), Rudolph II, Holy Roman Emperor (1585-1621).
(1576-1612).
MAJOR CONFLICTS
Ottoman Empire—Bayezid II (1481-1512), Selim I,
"the Inexorable" (1512-1520), Suleiman the Magnifi- 1519-1522—Conquest of Mexico
cent or the Lawgiver (1520-1566), Selim II, "the Sot" 1521-1529—Turkish invasion of southern Europe
(1566-1574), Murad III (1574-1595), Mehmed III
1522-1559—Hapsburg-Valois Wars
(1595-1603).
1524-1525—Peasants' War
Papacy—Alexander VI (1492-1503), Pius III (1503), Julius
1546-1547—Schmalkaldic War
II (1503-1513), Leo X (1513-1521), Adrian VI
(1521-1523), Clement VII (1523-1534), Paul III 1557-1582—Livonian War
(1534-1549), Julius III (1550-1555), Marcellus II 1562-1598—French wars of religion
(1555), Paul IV (1555-1559), Pius IV (1559-1565), St.
1585-1589—War of the Three Henries
Pius V (1566-1572), Gregory XIII (1572-1585), Sixtus
WORLD EVENTS 3