Amen Thesis 2018

429 Pages·2017·13.53 MB·English

by  Amen Alrobai

Engineering Social Networks to Combat
Digital Addiction: The Case of Online
Peer Groups

Amen Ali Alrobai

A thesis submitted in partial fulfilment of the requirements of
Bournemouth University for the degree of Doctor of Philosophy
April 2018
Bournemouth University
Copyright
This copy of the thesis has been supplied on condition that anyone who
consults it is understood to recognise that its copyright rests with its author
and due acknowledgment must always be made of the use of any material
contained in, or derived from, this thesis.

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Abstract
Digital Addiction (DA) denotes a problematic relation with the technology described by being
compulsive, obsessive, impulsive and hasty. Recent research identified cases where digital usage
shows symptoms of the clinical criteria of behavioural addiction. Peer groups approach is one of
the strategies to combat addictive behaviours. It can provide a motivational and learning
environment, and ambivalence reduction through sharing, counselling and mutual helping.
Hosting peer groups online as a domain-specific social networking service can empower
behaviour awareness and change communication including the case of combatting DA. Unlike
other behaviours and their change mechanisms, DA as a problematic behaviour, and online peer
group share the same space and operational modality. This can empower the online behaviour
monitoring and the interaction towards combatting DA in a real-time and transparent style.
However, building online peer groups platforms and customizing their functional and
interactive features to fit the needs and characteristics of a specific group is a complex process.
Also, this requires a careful theoretical understanding of these systems unique variables and
attributes which include interactivity, anonymity, equity, profiling, presence and transparency.
An ad-hoc design of such persuasive information systems may not only fail to achieve the desired
outcomes but may cause significant harm, e.g. lowering self-esteem and counterproductive
upward and downward comparisons, etc. As such, the goal of this thesis is to devise a method
towards a better-managed design of this technology so that we increase its chance to combat DA.
To achieve this goal, the thesis first takes an exploratory approach through several empirical
studies including qualitative meta-analysis, qualitative user studies and observational
investigations. The findings indicate that the design process of such systems should actively
involve end-users to accommodate their needs and expectations and that the design shall have a
customizable ecology. The findings were used to propose a method that supports the ability to
adapt the scope and functionalities of an online peer group platform to fit various peer groups
styles and dynamics with the aim of maintaining the validity and quality over the behaviour
awareness and change programme. The method proposed in this thesis involves different roles
(people with DA, counsellors, software designers), and has a participatory nature which is a
natural fit to the spirit and remit of peer groups.
The primary contribution of this thesis is twofold: i) a reference model for designing
interactive online peer groups platforms to combat DA, ii) a method inspired by participatory
design paradigm to customise the interaction environment for different groups. The method is
evaluated in terms of its ease of use, comprehensiveness, appropriateness, and usefulness through
a design case study. The results show the potential and applicability of the method in providing
an enhanced design process for online peer group platforms to regulate DA in comparison to
general purposes development methods which do not cater for the nuances and peculiarities of
this particular user group, i.e. people with DA, and the peer group environment. A set of heuristics
and guidelines are also derived. One notable recommendation is the recommendation to use the
approach when dealing with moderate DA cases in ways that do not interfere with the decision-
making about DA, but rather provide tools and platforms to facilitate taking those decisions
effectively and in an informed style.
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Contents
Copyright .............................................................................................................................................. I
Abstract ............................................................................................................................................... II
Acknowledgement ............................................................................................................................ XII
1. Chapter 1: Introduction .............................................................................................................. 1
1.1 Thesis aim ............................................................................................................................. 5
1.2 Thesis questions .................................................................................................................... 5
1.3 Thesis objectives ................................................................................................................... 6
1.4 Thesis assumptions ................................................................................................................ 8
1.5 Thesis methodology overview ............................................................................................. 10
1.6 Thesis structure ................................................................................................................... 11
1.7 Publications arising from this thesis ..................................................................................... 12
1.7.1 Declaration of co-authors contribution ............................................................................. 13
1.8 Chapter summary ................................................................................................................ 14
2. Chapter 2: Literature review..................................................................................................... 15
2.1 Digital addiction .................................................................................................................. 15
2.1.1 Digital addiction definitions ............................................................................................ 17
2.1.2 Digital addiction terminologies comparisons .................................................................... 18
2.1.3 Risk factors ..................................................................................................................... 21
2.1.4 Tests and measurements .................................................................................................. 26
2.1.5 Treatment approaches...................................................................................................... 27
2.1.6 Modalities for delivering prevention and treatment .......................................................... 31
2.2 Behavioural change theories and models .............................................................................. 34
2.2.1 The theory of planned behaviour ..................................................................................... 35
2.2.2 Social cognitive theory .................................................................................................... 35
2.2.3 The control theory ........................................................................................................... 36
2.2.4 Transtheoretical model .................................................................................................... 36
2.2.5 The health belief model ................................................................................................... 37
2.2.6 Goal setting theory .......................................................................................................... 38
2.2.7 Cialdini’s principles ........................................................................................................ 39
2.2.8 Fogg’s model .................................................................................................................. 40
2.3 Technology-assisted behavioural change .............................................................................. 40
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2.3.1 The adoption of technology in health care ........................................................................ 40
2.3.2 The rapid-growth market and risks................................................................................... 41
2.3.3 E-health technology and design considerations ................................................................ 42
2.3.4 E-health technology and digital addiction ........................................................................ 43
2.3.5 Technology-assisted persuasive techniques ...................................................................... 44
2.3.6 Captology ....................................................................................................................... 45
2.3.7 Gamification ................................................................................................................... 45
2.4 Peer Groups ........................................................................................................................ 47
2.4.1 Peer groups interaction styles .......................................................................................... 49
2.4.2 Advantages of peer groups for combating addictive behaviours ........................................ 49
2.4.3 Online support groups ..................................................................................................... 50
2.4.4 Group development ......................................................................................................... 51
2.4.5 Group dynamics .............................................................................................................. 52
2.5 Digital addiction and technology related topics .................................................................... 54
2.5.1 Requirements engineering and digital addiction ............................................................... 54
2.5.2 Social computing ............................................................................................................ 57
2.5.3 Self-regulation ................................................................................................................ 60
2.5.4 Self-adaptation ................................................................................................................ 61
2.5.5 Situational awareness ...................................................................................................... 63
2.5.6 Human-computer interaction aspects ............................................................................... 67
2.5.7 Design approaches .......................................................................................................... 68
2.6 Chapter summary ................................................................................................................ 72
3. Chapter 3: Research methodology ............................................................................................ 73
3.1 Research philosophies ......................................................................................................... 74
3.1.1 Positivism ....................................................................................................................... 74
3.1.2 Realism ........................................................................................................................... 75
3.1.3 Interpretivism .................................................................................................................. 75
3.1.4 Pragmatism ..................................................................................................................... 76
3.2 Research approaches ........................................................................................................... 76
3.3 Research strategy ................................................................................................................ 78
3.3.1 Grounded theory ............................................................................................................. 78
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3.3.2 Ethnography.................................................................................................................... 79
3.3.3 Case studies .................................................................................................................... 80
3.3.4 Experiments .................................................................................................................... 81
3.3.5 Action research ............................................................................................................... 81
3.3.6 Surveys ........................................................................................................................... 82
3.4 Research choices ................................................................................................................. 84
3.5 Time horizons ..................................................................................................................... 85
3.6 Adopted methods ................................................................................................................ 85
3.6.1 Survey ............................................................................................................................ 85
3.6.2 Observation..................................................................................................................... 86
3.6.3 Document analysis .......................................................................................................... 87
3.6.4 Interviews ....................................................................................................................... 88
3.6.5 Focus groups ................................................................................................................... 89
3.6.6 “Expert” member checking .............................................................................................. 90
3.6.7 Diary studies ................................................................................................................... 91
3.7 Data analysis techniques ...................................................................................................... 92
3.7.1 Qualitative content analysis ............................................................................................. 92
3.8 Ethical considerations .......................................................................................................... 93
3.9 The adopted methodology.................................................................................................... 95
3.10 Research design................................................................................................................... 96
3.10.1 Phase one: Orientation ................................................................................................ 99
3.10.2 Phase two: Exploration................................................................................................ 99
3.10.3 Phase three: Investigation .......................................................................................... 100
3.10.4 Phase four: Confirmation .......................................................................................... 100
3.11 Chapter summary .............................................................................................................. 101
4. Chapter 4: Conceptualisation of digital addiction .................................................................. 102
4.1 Towards a definition of digital addiction ............................................................................ 102
4.1.1 Logical models .............................................................................................................. 102
4.2 Reference model for digital addiction ................................................................................ 106
4.2.1 Research goal ................................................................................................................ 106
4.2.2 Research methodology .................................................................................................. 107
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4.2.3 Research results ............................................................................................................ 109
4.3 Discussion ......................................................................................................................... 118
4.4 Chapter Summary .............................................................................................................. 119
5. Chapter 5: Persuasive interactive technology (PIT) to combat digital addiction ................... 121
5.1 Research goal .................................................................................................................... 122
5.2 Research design................................................................................................................. 122
5.3 Research method ............................................................................................................... 122
5.3.1 Sampling....................................................................................................................... 125
5.3.2 Phase one: Users’ diary study ........................................................................................ 126
5.3.3 Phase two: Users’ interview .......................................................................................... 126
5.3.4 Phase three: Online forum analysis ................................................................................ 127
5.3.5 Data analysis ................................................................................................................. 128
5.4 Results .............................................................................................................................. 128
5.4.1 Design aspects .............................................................................................................. 129
5.5 Discussion ......................................................................................................................... 145
5.5.1 Designing PIT to combat digital addiction ..................................................................... 145
5.5.2 Risk factors and socio-technical issues ........................................................................... 147
5.6 Chapter summary .............................................................................................................. 148
6. Chapter 6: Exploring online peer groups for combating digital addiction ............................. 149
6.1 Research goal .................................................................................................................... 149
6.2 Research method ............................................................................................................... 150
6.2.1 Study one: User study.................................................................................................... 150
6.2.2 Study two: Focus group ................................................................................................. 150
6.2.3 Data analysis ................................................................................................................. 152
6.3 Results .............................................................................................................................. 152
6.3.1 Attitudes to the overall concept of online peer groups .................................................... 153
6.3.2 The moderation role in online peer groups ..................................................................... 154
6.4 Discussion ......................................................................................................................... 161
6.4.1 Risk factors ................................................................................................................... 161
6.4.2 Reflections on the desingn for persuation ....................................................................... 168
6.5 Chapter summary .............................................................................................................. 170
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7. Chapter 7: Design principles for online peer groups .............................................................. 172
7.1 Research goal .................................................................................................................... 173
7.2 Research design................................................................................................................. 174
7.3 Research method ............................................................................................................... 174
7.4 Study one: Traditional rehab centre .................................................................................... 174
7.4.1 Selecting a site and a group of interest ........................................................................... 175
7.4.2 Face to face groups sessions .......................................................................................... 176
7.4.3 Face to face observations procedures ............................................................................. 182
7.4.4 Therapists interviews ..................................................................................................... 184
7.4.5 Document analysis ........................................................................................................ 185
7.4.6 Data analysis ................................................................................................................. 186
7.4.7 Results .......................................................................................................................... 186
7.5 Study two: Online peer groups ........................................................................................... 204
7.5.1 Selecting a website and online groups of interest............................................................ 204
7.5.2 Online group sessions .................................................................................................... 205
7.5.3 Online observation procedures ....................................................................................... 206
7.5.4 Data analysis ................................................................................................................. 206
7.5.5 Results .......................................................................................................................... 207
7.5.6 Discussions ................................................................................................................... 212
7.6 Chapter summary .............................................................................................................. 220
8. Chapter 8: Customisable online persuasive ecology: A participatory approach method....... 221
8.1 A reference architecture for online peer groups .................................................................. 222
8.2 The COPE.er method artefacts ........................................................................................... 224
8.2.1 Social roles ................................................................................................................... 224
8.2.2 Social objects ................................................................................................................ 228
8.2.3 The COPE.er method building blocks ............................................................................ 230
8.2.4 Functional features ........................................................................................................ 232
8.3 The COPE.er method activities .......................................................................................... 239
8.3.1 Guidelines ..................................................................................................................... 243
8.4 Chapter summary .............................................................................................................. 252

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9. Chapter 9: COPE.er evaluation .............................................................................................. 253
9.1 Research study aim ............................................................................................................ 253
9.2 Research study strategy ..................................................................................................... 254
9.2.1 Methods stages .............................................................................................................. 254
9.2.2 Methods types ............................................................................................................... 256
9.2.3 Evaluation types for engineering methods ...................................................................... 257
9.3 The rationale of the evaluation study design ....................................................................... 258
9.4 Research study method ...................................................................................................... 260
9.4.1 Stage 1: Expert checking ............................................................................................... 260
9.4.2 Stage 2: Case study ....................................................................................................... 262
9.5 Results .............................................................................................................................. 273
9.5.1 Stage one: Expert checking............................................................................................ 273
9.5.2 Stage two (phase one): Designing without the guide of the COPE.er .............................. 274
9.5.3 Stage two (phase two): Designing with the guide of the COPE.er ................................... 281
9.6 Discussion ......................................................................................................................... 302
9.6.1 Understandability .......................................................................................................... 302
9.6.2 Comprehensiveness ....................................................................................................... 302
9.6.3 Appropriateness ............................................................................................................ 303
9.6.4 Usefulness .................................................................................................................... 304
9.7 Chapter summary .............................................................................................................. 305
10. Chapter 10: Conclusions ..................................................................................................... 306
10.1 Objectives revisited ........................................................................................................... 307
10.2 Contribution to knowledge ................................................................................................ 310
10.3 Study limitations ............................................................................................................... 315
10.4 Recommendations and lessons learned ............................................................................... 316
10.5 Future work ....................................................................................................................... 319
11. References ............................................................................................................................ 324
12. Appendices ........................................................................................................................... 344
12.1 Appendix 1 ....................................................................................................................... 344
12.2 Appendix 2 ....................................................................................................................... 365
12.3 Appendix 3 ....................................................................................................................... 369
12.4 Appendix 4 ....................................................................................................................... 372
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12.5 Appendix 5 ....................................................................................................................... 385
12.6 Appendix 6 ....................................................................................................................... 413

List of figures
Figure 1: Mapping the research questions to the thesis aim ..................................................................... 5
Figure 2: Research context and focus .................................................................................................... 12
Figure 3: The hook model (Eyal 2014) ................................................................................................. 24
Figure 4: The five stages to execute an action (Wendel 2013) ............................................................... 43
Figure 5: Tuckman’s model of small groups development (Tuckman and Mac Jensen 1977) ................ 52
Figure 6: A concern-based taxonomy of requirements (Glinz 2007) ...................................................... 56
Figure 7: Social media functional blocks (Kietzmann et al. 2011) ......................................................... 59
Figure 8: Model of situation awareness (Endsley 1995)......................................................................... 64
Figure 9: Kofod-Petersen and Cassens’ Context Model (2006) .............................................................. 66
Figure 10: Research onion (Saunders et al. 2009) .................................................................................. 74
Figure 11: Research approaches loop. Adapted from (Gill and Johnson 2010) ....................................... 76
Figure 12: Typology of participant observation researcher roles (Saunders et al. 2009) .......................... 87
Figure 13: Research design of the thesis ............................................................................................... 97
Figure 14: The landscape of user research methods. Adopted from (Rohrer 2008) ................................. 98
Figure 15: Logical model of the problematic internet use definition .................................................... 103
Figure 16: Logical model of the generalised pathological internet use definition .................................. 104
Figure 17: logical model of the internet addiction definition ................................................................ 104
Figure 18: Logical model of the technological addiction definition ...................................................... 104
Figure 19: Summary of the four logical models .................................................................................. 105
Figure 20: The logical model of DA definition from software prespective ........................................... 106
Figure 21: Digital addiction mind map................................................................................................ 111
Figure 22: DA reference model (part one) ........................................................................................... 116
Figure 23: DA reference model (part two) .......................................................................................... 117
Figure 24: The basic demographic characteristics of participants ......................................................... 129
Figure 25: Online peer groups for combating digital addiction ............................................................ 152
Figure 26: Risk factors of PIT intervention to combat digital addiction ............................................... 161
Figure 27: Individual participation in group work over time ................................................................ 197
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