Loughborough University Institutional Repository Alternative filter media in rapid gravity filtration of potable water ThisitemwassubmittedtoLoughboroughUniversity’sInstitutionalRepository by the/an author. Additional Information: • A Doctoral Thesis. Submitted in partial fulfilment of the requirements for the award of Doctor of Philosophy of Loughborough University. Metadata Record: https://dspace.lboro.ac.uk/2134/12183 Publisher: (cid:13)c Phillip D. Davies Please cite the published version. This item was submitted to Loughborough University as a PhD thesis by the author and is made available in the Institutional Repository (https://dspace.lboro.ac.uk/) under the following Creative Commons Licence conditions. For the full text of this licence, please go to: http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-nc-nd/2.5/ ALTERNATIVE FILTER MEDIA IN RAPID GRAVITY FILTRATION OF POTABLE WATER By PHILLIP D. DAVIES A Doctoral Thesis Submitted in Partial Fulfillment of the Requirements for the Award of Doctor of Philosophy of Loughborough University June 2012 © By Phillip D. Davies (2012) 1 ABSTRACT Sand has been the main filter media used in rapid gravity filtration since their emergence in the 19th century. This dominance is due to its low cost, availability and extensive experience which has led to dependable and predictable performance. Over recent years multi‐media filters have become the typical filter arrangement. Sand still remains the preferred filter medium in the lower layer with typically anthracite used in the upper layer. A limitation to match previous work has been the emphasis on overall performance but mechanistic analysis as to the reasons for the variations compared to sand has been rare. The fundamental effects of particle size and consolidation on filtration performance and headloss are known but were not often accounted for in the reported research. This has limited the academic contribution of previous work and made it more difficult to compare with the data for this thesis. At an average treatment works the highest costs are associated with the use of chemicals (30 %) and power (60 %) required mainly for pumping. Rapid gravity filters are one of the least energy demanding stages in this system, only requiring pumping for backwashing and air scour, assuming gravity feed was incorporated into the design. Energy efficiency of water treatment has become more important and the research was conducted to determine if the use of novel new media could be used to improve the performance of the filters with regards to turbidity and headloss. For example, the result presented within this thesis demonstrates through the use of angular media improved performance to benefit both turbidity and headloss performance. This was obtained from slate having a sphericity of 0.49 compared to sand at 0.88. In addition the use of novel materials with different physical properties has allowed an extension to analysis of performance using fundamental filtration mechanisms. The greater range of properties available from the novel media used in this thesis compared to sand has suggested additions to this theory. The use of surface reactive materials, including limestone, has shown the removal of additional contaminants such as phosphorus, iron, aluminium and manganese not typically associated with rapid gravity filtration. An assessment of the impact these reactions had on typical filter performance criteria, for 1 example turbidity, headloss and life expectancy. The results showed an 97 % removal of Fe in the limestone compared to 13 % for sand. This was brought about by the precipitation of hydroxide, coagulation, a pH change and consequent co‐precipitation. In the case of iron and aluminium removal this pH induced change was theorized as the most likely cause of coagulation within the filter bed itself leading to improved turbidity removal performance. Filter media chosen for laboratory and pilot study in this work was firstly assessed using British Standards tests, but additional tests were added that could provide additional characterisation data. The media were selected based on an individual fundamental property that differed from the other media selected whilst retaining the standard RGF size. Filtralite for example offered a high surface area, limestone a more active surface and slate a plate‐like particle shape. Glass had a very smooth surface texture and as a recycled material better sustainability. Four of these filter media (Sand (control), Glass, Filtralite and Slate) were then selected for further on‐site pilot plant studies, based on results from the laboratory work. Both the laboratory and pilot study suggested that turbidity and headloss performance could be improved by changes in media specification. The results showed that after particle size, angularity of the media was the most important factor affecting turbidity and headloss performance. A greater angularity led to improvements in filter run time with for example a doubling of filter run time with the slate compared to sand for the same turbidity removal in the pilot plant. Previous literature had suggested an improvement in turbidity performance but that head loss would deteriorate but this was not seen in the data from this research, with slate (sphericity of 0.49) offering improved headloss performance. This improvement was attributed to the varied packing of the filter bed and associated porosity variations throughout the filter. The objectives of the pilot study were to provide understanding of scale‐up factors and adjust these theories with real variable clarified water. Real water chemistry is too complex to model and enabled experiments more typical of the variation that a rapid gravity filter would encounter. The pilot plant is 0.07 % the plan area of a full scale filter compared to the 0.01 % of the laboratory columns. Results corroborated the laboratory work on the effect of extreme particle shapes on filter performance. 2 The pilot study also highlighted problems from floc carry over with the use of clarified water and quantified the impact it had on filtration performance. In this case floc carryover changed the performance of the pilot plant results significantly. Thus an overall conclusion from the work was that an integrated design approach to filters, to account for the clarifier type the likelihood of floc carryover and raw water anticipated could be further researched. There were also limitations to the current monitoring equipment that could not quantitatively measure the floc carryover because of large particle size. 3 CONTENTS 1 Abstract .......................................................................................................................................................... 1 2 Acknowledgements ........................................................................................................................................ 7 3 Introduction ................................................................................................................................................. 14 4 Literature Review ......................................................................................................................................... 18 4.1 Studies on Alternative Filter Media ...................................................................................................... 18 4.1.1 Pumice ......................................................................................................................................... 20 4.1.2 Glass............................................................................................................................................. 27 4.1.3 Expanded Aluminosilicate (Filtralite®) ......................................................................................... 39 4.1.4 Limestone .................................................................................................................................... 53 4.1.5 Other ............................................................................................................................................ 59 4.2 Filtration Mechanisms .......................................................................................................................... 61 4.2.1 Particle Transportation ................................................................................................................ 63 4.2.2 Attachment Mechanisms ............................................................................................................. 68 4.3 Analysis and Objectives ........................................................................................................................ 74 5 Media Characterisation Results and discussion ........................................................................................... 76 5.1 Density .................................................................................................................................................. 77 5.1.1 Theory .......................................................................................................................................... 77 5.1.2 Testing ......................................................................................................................................... 81 5.2 Sphericity and Particle Shape ............................................................................................................... 82 5.2.1 Theory .......................................................................................................................................... 82 5.2.2 Testing ......................................................................................................................................... 83 5.3 Particle Size Distribution ...................................................................................................................... 85 5.3.1 Theory .......................................................................................................................................... 85 5.3.2 Testing ......................................................................................................................................... 88 5.4 Bed Porosity ......................................................................................................................................... 97 5.4.1 Theory .......................................................................................................................................... 97 5.4.2 Testing ......................................................................................................................................... 99 5.5 Friability and Mechanical Durability of Media ................................................................................... 102 5.5.1 Theory ........................................................................................................................................ 102 5.5.2 Testing ....................................................................................................................................... 105 5.6 Acid Solubility ..................................................................................................................................... 106 4 5.6.1 Theory ........................................................................................................................................ 106 5.6.2 Testing ....................................................................................................................................... 109 5.7 Surface Area Determination ............................................................................................................... 112 5.7.1 Theory ........................................................................................................................................ 112 5.7.2 Testing ....................................................................................................................................... 115 5.8 Scanning Electron Microscopy (SEM) ................................................................................................. 117 5.8.1 Sand ........................................................................................................................................... 118 5.8.2 Glass........................................................................................................................................... 119 5.8.3 LimestoNe .................................................................................................................................. 121 5.8.4 Filtralite ...................................................................................................................................... 122 5.8.5 Slate ........................................................................................................................................... 124 5.8.6 Steel and Furnace Slag ............................................................................................................... 125 5.8.7 Phosphorus Slag ........................................................................................................................ 126 5.8.8 Pumice (Techfil®) ........................................................................................................................ 126 5.8.9 Pumice (Pumex®) ....................................................................................................................... 127 5.9 Batch Adsorption Testing ................................................................................................................... 128 5.9.1 Methodology ............................................................................................................................. 128 5.9.2 Testing ....................................................................................................................................... 129 5.10 Initial Characterization recommendations ......................................................................................... 137 6 Laboratory Scale Trials ............................................................................................................................... 139 6.1 Raw Water .......................................................................................................................................... 140 6.2 Filter Bed Specifications ..................................................................................................................... 143 6.2.1 Supporting Media ...................................................................................................................... 143 6.2.2 Filter Media ............................................................................................................................... 146 6.3 Apparatus ........................................................................................................................................... 148 6.3.1 Raw Water Storage and Delivery ............................................................................................... 149 6.3.2 Filter Columns ............................................................................................................................ 151 6.3.3 Pressure ports ............................................................................................................................ 158 6.4 Filter Run Results ................................................................................................................................ 162 6.4.1 Steady State Turbidity ............................................................................................................... 166 6.4.2 Headloss .................................................................................................................................... 180 6.4.3 Backwashing .............................................................................................................................. 188 5 6.5 Summary and Conclusions ................................................................................................................. 190 7 Pilot Scale Trials .......................................................................................................................................... 194 7.1 Methodology ...................................................................................................................................... 194 7.1.1 Water Treatment Works ............................................................................................................ 194 7.1.2 Pilot Plant .................................................................................................................................. 197 7.1.3 Clarified Water Quality .............................................................................................................. 200 7.1.4 Mudballing + Backwashing ........................................................................................................ 205 7.2 Results ................................................................................................................................................ 207 7.2.1 Summary of Testing ................................................................................................................... 207 7.2.2 Turbidity Removal ...................................................................................................................... 209 7.2.3 Headloss .................................................................................................................................... 212 7.2.4 Analysis ...................................................................................................................................... 220 8 Summarising Discussion and Conclusions .................................................................................................. 224 9 Further Work .............................................................................................................................................. 227 10 Refrences .................................................................................................................................................... 229 6 2 ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS Firstly, I would like to thank my supervisor Professor Andrew Wheatley who has supported me throughout the project. I am grateful for his guidance on the topic of my PhD and also the wealth of additional knowledge I was provided with, sometimes without requesting it on a broad range of subjects. Thanks also to Christine Barton for organizing Andrew’s time so well that he was always available when I needed his time to query another idea. My thanks go out to all the technicians in the civil engineering laboratories at Loughborough for their contributions both great and small. More specifically, I would like to that both Mick Barker and Mick Shonk for their assistance in constructing the equipment, without their skills and advice I would have made very slow progress. In addition, I must thank Geoffrey Russell and Jayshree Bhuptani for their help in sample analysis, general advice and their often interesting conversation. Thanks must also go to the technicians over in materials engineering for their analysis of samples and answering any questions I had. Thanks go to Severn Trent Water for allowing me access to one of their sites to carry out a pilot study, and especially to Bernadette Ryan, Jessie Roe, Lizz Brookes, Keiron Maher, Mick Carvell and the numerous operators on site who offered assistance and guidance throughout the project. Also thanks to those who have helped and taken an interest in my work from United Utilities and especially to David Watson. Thanks also to my co‐workers in the hub who constantly ensured I never got too far ahead of myself and the members of the cycling club who made sure I was sufficiently distracted from work to never get too stressed. For those I have not mentioned I offer simple thanks. 7
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