Allusions in Dante's Infemo - Fisher Digital Publications

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by  Sarah Landas

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Volume 5 Article 9
2002
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Sarah Landas
St. John Fisher University, [email protected]
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Landas, Sarah. "Allusions in Dante's Infemo." The Review: A Journal of Undergraduate Student Research 5
(2002): 91-112. Web. [date of access]. <https://fisherpub.sjf.edu/ur/vol5/iss1/9>.
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In lieu of an abstract, below is the essay's first paragraph.
"Vexilla regis produent inferni; the banners of the king go forth, the king of Hell" (Vergani 74). In a place
called Dis, the demon Satan resides. He has three hideous heads and spends his time crying from six
eyes, while the tears mingle with the blood of three tortured sinners. These sinners, Brutus, Cassius, and
Judas Iscariot, are ground to bits by Lucifer's gnashing teeth, while Judas alone receives the benefit of
also having his back stripped of its skin as retribution for him being the greatest sinner to be found in all
of Hell. This illustration is presented in a graphic and figurative manner, thus making it a prime example of
the type of allusion that Dante Alighieri uses throughout the Inferno the first section of his literary classic,
The Divine Comedy.
This article is available in The Review: A Journal of Undergraduate Student Research: https://fisherpub.sjf.edu/ur/
vol5/iss1/9
Landas: Allusions in Dante's Infemo
Allusions in Dante's Infemo
by Sarah Landas
"Vexilla regis produent inferni; the these warnings applied primarily to educated
banners of the king go forth, the king of individuals, only if the readers were
Hell"(Vergani 74). In a place called Dis, the somewhat intellectually advanced would
demon Satan resides. He has three hideous they be able to understand the combined
heads and spends his time crying from six philosophical and religious depth of the text,
eyes, while the tears mingle with the blood such as the meaning found in the inscription
of three tortured sinners. These sinners, over the gate at the beginning of the work.
Brutus, Cassius, and Judas Iscariot, are This inscription described as residing above
ground to bits by Lucifer's gnashing teeth, the Gate to Hell in the Inferno reads:
while Judas alone receives the benefit of
also having his back stripped of its skin as Through me the way to the suffering city,
Through me the way to eternal pain,
retribution for him being the greatest sinner
Through me the way that runs among the lost.
to be found in all of Hell. This illustration is
Justice urged on my high artificer;
presented in a graphic and figurative My maker was divine authority,
manner, thus making it a prime example of The highest wisdom, and the primal love.
the type of allusion that Dante Alighieri uses Before me nothing but eternal things
Were made, and I endure eternally.
throughout the Inferno the first section of his
Abandon every hope, all who enter here.
literary classic, The Divine Comedy.
{Alighieri 68).
Many instances of allusion can be found
in the Inferno in order to create one large
This inscription lays the foundation for
allusion to the overall atmosphere and
all of the following allusions used in the
problems of Dante's time. Most of the
Inferno as warnings to the world. It sets
allusions in this work can be classified as
forth the element of hopelessness that Dante
either political, religious, or social morality
was convinced would consume all people
allusions. The allusions in Dante's Inferno
who transgressed in various ways unless
act as a means for the author's expression of
they heeded the warnings that his book
his own opinions and predictions about his
presented. This warning was that unless
life and times. The allusions also serve as a
individuals right their wrongs while on
mirror through which the present can be
Earth, they would ultimately be denied
viewed through the actions and occurrences
passage out of Hell.
of past history. Most of the allusions found
Dante may have intended his poem to be
in the Inferno were used to present a
read by only the educated of his time, but
representation of different stereotypes
the impact which the piece actually had was
associated with behaviors and attitudes that
to reach a much larger audience than Dante
Dante felt were injurious to Italian society,
could possibly have anticipated. The reason
as well as to the rest of the world.
for the depth of this one piece of literature is
Some of these allusions were meant to
due to the fact that, taken as a modem
be parables of warning for the ordinary
interpretation, the Inferno can be seen as a
reader. In this context, the term "ordinary"
metaphoric counterpart of the present world.
is meant to primarily encompass the
A literary definition of allusion states that it
educated of Dante's own time period and the
is a causal or intentional reference to a
educated in the years to come. Because
specific person or event, often used as a
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parable ("Allusion"). Dante employs this Hell, Dante was presenting the readers with
method of using allusion in order to achieve the opportunity to repent as individuals and
certain literary, personal, and political as a society. Jn this regard, the book serves
objectives. He wished to create a great as a lens through which individuals can view
piece of literature because he considered their own lives through the mistakes and
himself to be one of the greatest writers of transgressions of others in the past, and in
his time. He also wished to express his doing so they may have the opportunity to
personal opinions about certain events of his correct their misdeeds.
time, and he wished to expose the political In order to understand the reasoning
beliefs of his party without the risk of behind each sinner's specific placement in
personal persecution that might have arisen Hell, Dante's rankings of the different types
if he had used some other means of of sins and sinners found in Hell is
expression. necessary. The structure of Hell consists of
Some of Dante's primary ways of nine circles and one vestibule found directly
achieving these objectives were by revealing outside the gate to Hell. The sinners within
the misdeeds of religious leaders, Hell are placed according to one of three
denouncing certain political actions by classifications: incontinence, violence, and
individuals as well as countries, illustrating fraud. The shape of Hell is a large funnel
warnings against transgressions of social shaped pit located directly under Jerusalem.
morality aimed at the Italians of his time, As the circles of Hell progress, the
and by depicting the physical and circumference of the entire funnel decreases
mythological nature of Hell and the until it meets Satan at the center of the
punishments that befall its captives. Dante Earth's core (Vergani 12).
also wished to communicate his message Each circle of Hell is reserved for a
regarding the condition of the soul after particular sin, and these sins are designated
death, as a result of the choices the to a particular region based on the level of
individual made during life. In this way, their offensiveness to God. The more
Dante hoped to point out the error of the offensive the nature of the sin, the further
ways of those who were still living in an away that sinner is cast from God. Dante
effort to set them back on the path of considers incontinence, or weakness of will,
salvation (Vergani 14). Dante used his own to be the least offensive sin so it is therefore
personal standards of judgment, law, and the first category encountered when
morality coupled with notorious individuals progressing through Hell. The next category
in order to create these allusions and achieve is violence against neighbors, oneself, or
his objectives. God. The third category is the fraudulent,
Most of the allusions found in the which includes the worst sinners who
Inferno are interrelated. The relationship betrayed their family, country, guests, or
between the different instances of allusions masters (Vergani 13). Dante adheres to this
help to create one large and coherent format of Hell based on his own judgments
parable, message, and warning for the about how severe certain transgressions
reader. The message itself may be different should be considered. These judgments are
for each reader, because Dante meant the based on certain personally held classical,
poem to present stereotypical characters Christian, and legal ideals of his time.
from among which the reader could identify Dante uses allusions in the Inferno in
with at least one person. By recognizing order to better illustrate this scheme of Hell,
their similarities with individuals already in its punishments, and the sinners found
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Landas: Allusions in Dante's Infemo
within its depths. The opening allusion himself, Dante appointed him as the most
discussed in this paper portrays the three tortured soul to reside in Hell (Alighieri
sinners Brutus, Cassius, and Judas Iscariot 211 ).
being tortured by the jaws of Lucifer's three This combined political and religious
mouths. They reside in the fourth ring of the allusion serves several purposes. One is to
ninth circle of Hell, which is the innermost make an impact through the visual effect it
depth of Hell. The three sinners reside in creates on the reader who is able to picture
this ring as a representation of all traitors the actual historical figures being tortured
against their benefactors, for whom this for their notorious sins. Another purpose is
sphere of Hell was designed (Alighieri 210). to illustrate the repercussions of other people
Dante uses this allusion in order to committing similar crimes, and to warn
present the reader with historical figures that against such behavior if the individual does
people of his time were familiar with, due to not wish to end up the same way. The
the infamy of each sinner's deeds. This allusion acts as a mirror that enables readers
allusion is mostly of a political nature, to examine their own lives and reflect on
though it may also be classified as a any similarities that they would need to
religious allusion as well. The two Roman concentrate on correcting so that they do not
sinners mentioned, Marcus Junius Brutus end up being assigned a similar fate for all
and Gaius Cassius, were involved in eternity.
planning and carrying out the assassination The focus on political speech is
plot against Gaius Julius Caesar, the Roman epitomized through Dante's choice of a
Dictator of their time, on March I 5, 44 B.C. guide to lead him, as the depiction of the
("Gaius"). Since the two committed the universal sinner, on his journey through
crime against a political colleague, supposed Hell. Dante's choice of the poet Virgil as
friend, and their benefactor, they were his guide was based on his belief that Virgil
reserved special places in Hell after their was "the greatest ancient exponent of an
own deaths. ideal Roman Empire" (Royal 29). The
The other sinner, Judas Iscariot of allusion and placement of Virgil as the
Kerioth, a town in Judea, serves not only as universal sinner's guide may seem
a historically political allusion, but also as a incongruent when trying to establish a
religious allusion. Judas is described as relationship between an ancient pagan
having been motivated by greed to betray Roman and a poem that is devoted to
Jesus Christ to the Sanhedrin. This betrayal Christian spirituality. Many people believed
was accommodated for a mere thirty pieces Virgil to be less of a philosopher with
of silver, which Judas received in return for insight to the spiritual world, as opposed to
bringing the chief priest to Jesus in the his being a brilliant historical poet.
Garden of Gethsemane (John 12:6). Judas However, Dante believed in the medieval
had previously served as an Apostle and a tradition that suggested that classical poets
steward to Jesus Christ and his other including Virgil were also sages, with
disciples. Upon seeing the results of his supernatural powers that enabled them to
betrayal, namely the crucified Jesus hanging have sufficient spiritual insight to serve as
on a cross, Judas Iscariot is said to have run an appropriate guide in Dante's journey
away and hung himself on what is known (Royal 29).
today as the Judas tree ("Judas"). Because The figure of Virgil also serves as
of the magnitude of his betrayal and the fact Dante's bridge between two institutions, the
that his benefactor had been the Son of God church and the empire (Vergani 11 ). As a
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classical poet and a pagan, Virgil moment in the poem where Dante appears to
represented a link between the classical be extending the self-fulfilling prophecy of
ideals that Dante believed in and the fame in centuries to come. Because of the
medieval Christianity that he practiced. fact that Dante has in fact been counted
Through Virgil, Dante called for a closer among the great authors of his time, this
marriage between the two institutions and comment in his poem has been argued by
the ideas held by each side. Dante believed some to be justi tied (Reade 318). This
that the beliefs of the classical poets could allusion to the !:,'Teat classical poets also
be combined with the traditional teachings helps to illustrate Dante's desire to integrate
of the Christian religions. By using Virgil to classical beliefs with his own Christian
make the connection between the seemingly doctrines and teachings.
opposite worlds, Dante hoped to illustrate While the purpose of this allusion may
the possibility of a greater union that simply be an opportunity for Dante to
balanced power between the two applaud himself for what he envisions as
institutions. great personal success, this allusion also
Further evidence of the connection that illustrates Dante's perception of what
Virgil offered between the two worlds can happens to those souls who lived before
be found in examining several similarities Christianity and led virtuous lives but lacked
that can be drawn between Virgil's poems a vision of God by not having been baptized.
and the Bible. One of these similarities is Dante makes further allusion to other
the fact that both books have been used as individuals among this group, including
types of divinations called sortes. Sortes are Aeneas, the son of Anchises and the subject
books that are opened at random and a verse of Virgil's own epic poem, the Aeneid. This
is then selected randomly as well in order to allusion can also be viewed as evidence that
find an answer to a specific question or Dante may have borrowed certain
problem. Another reason that Virgil may established ideas about the qualities of Hell
serve as a religiously inspired allusion is the from the Aeneid in order to create the
fact that in Virgil's fourth eclogue, he writes atmosphere of the Inferno. Support for this
in a symbolic form about the coming of a idea comes from the fact that in Virgil's
Wonder Child that will bring the world into sixth book of the Aeneid, the hero Aeneas
a Golden Age. In the Middle Ages, this takes a trip through the underworld in order
writing was considered to be a prophecy to speak with his father, Anchises (Forman
regarding the coming of Jesus Christ 14). Dante's description of the souls found
(Vergani 11 ). in the vestibule of Hell is similar to the state
Dante alludes to Virgil in several other of Anchises and other souls that Aeneas
ways in the poem as well. One of these encounters while visiting the underworld.
ways is through an allusion that involves Other historical philosophers such as
several other great classical poets, namely Socrates, Plato, Cicero, Seneca, and
Homer, Horace, Ovid, and Lucan. In the Aristotle are also alluded to in the fourth
fourth Canto of the Inferno Virgil proceeds Canto. This allusion to the great
to talk to these four great masters of philosophers is used as a means for
literature, who then turn and salute Dante. reassuring readers of the poem that it is not
This gesture is interpreted by Dante to mean as a punishment that these virtuous pagans
that they consider him to be in the same have been placed in the first circle of Hell.
league as themselves in terms of poetic Rather, this is merely a fulfillment of their
prowess. This is a seemingly arrogant visions of what life after death would be like
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(Royal 54). The idea for this allusion can be in the Messiah; his Ii fc must have
found in the writings of Socrates. In his exemplified the characteristics that bring
apology, Socrates describes an afierlife in one closer to God (Ozanam 455). Dante
which the soul migrates to a place where it presented this lesson based on his own
is able to speak with the greatest thinkers personally held belief that good works,
and people who have died in the past virtue, or morality count for nothing if a
(Vergani 26). Because these people arc person has not acknowledged Jesus Christ as
relatively content with this afterlife, their the ultimate redeemer.
present state in Hell after death is not Dante uses allusions in order to illustrate
portrayed as a cruel punishment. Instead, that Hell is the place where no one person is
their only true fault was a lack of given the opportunity to choose salvation,
imagination or understanding about the but rather the choice was made long ago,
anticipated coming of Christ. Because of before the person died (Vergani 26). These
this, they will be forever denied the combined historical and biblical allusions
opportunity to know or see God, and will be therefore serve as a warning to readers to
confined in Limbo for all eternity. repent before death for their sins. In this
This allusion combines with another that sense, Dante considers sin to be the
follows in the Canto in order to present a perversion of intellect, meaning "a lack of or
lesson to the reader. Dante asks Virgil in the fault in an individual's belief system and
poem if anyone has ever transcended this personal knowledge" (Vergani 19).
place of Limbo. Virgil's response is to tell Dante hoped to warn people of creating
him that shortly after his own death, Jesus too narrow of an acceptance of worldly and
Christ (though He is not mentioned by biblical teachings, and instead was
name), descended into Hell and brought out suggesting a more broad and accepting
many of the residents of Limbo who were method that included both science and
allowed to rise out of Hell with him (Royal theology. This idea arose from Dante's
54). Among those brought out of Hell were personal experience with various political
Adam, Abel, Noah, Abraham, Moses, and religious controversies during his life.
Rachel, and David. Virgil explains the Many of these controversies became the
process of the selection in the Inferno as subject matter of some of the allusions he
being a result of these individuals' used in the Inferno and will be discussed
reputations and names echoing up into throughout this paper. While he recognized
Heaven. Through the grace of God they that it is ultimately the individual's choice,
were recognized as ones who had believed Dante made it clear that the alternative he
and anticipated the arrival of a messiah, but envisioned was not exactly the paradise that
were not around to see the actual event could await the individual (Ozanam 220).
(Alighieri 73). Dante's motives in writing the Inferno
The lesson that can be found in this were not purely out of goodwill and out of
allusion to the few redeemed souls from the spirit of concern for his fellow man.
Limbo, and Virgil's explanation of the Dante had a personal stake in the matter. By
event, is that an ordinary individual will not writing a book of such renowned literary
be able to transcend from his or her position caliber, he was able to voice his own
in Hell unless he or she has acknowledged personal opinions. Because of the political
the existence of Jesus Christ before his or and social upheaval that occurred in his
her own death. The individual will also hometown of Florence, a town that he loved
need something more than a singular belief as much as any man has ever loved his
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birthplace, Dante became very disheartened and if nothing else it was a place where
and angry. The social situation of his Dante could start from a distance, without
homeland led to the sense of duty and the fear of possible public execution if he
urgency Dante felt towards writing the was caught in Florence again.
Inferno a poem he hoped would prove to be Political allusions play a significant role
a tool to help people repent and achieve in Dante's Inferno. The political situation
salvation. His eventual banishment from and its subsequent effect on Dante opened
Florence in 1302 led Dante to change his the door of opportunity for him to use his
political perspective, and gave him the drive writings in order to denounce certain
to write a poem expressing his feelings and political act1v1ttcs. The majority of
his desire for individuals as well as his characters alluded to in the Inferno were
beloved homeland to reform their sinful inhabitants of Florence, Italy, or were
ways (Royal 29). involved in the politics there. These people
Dante became a politician when he was were chosen to represent all people who arc
around thirty years old, after he had served corrupt in politics, as well as to illustrate
time in the military services of Italy. whom Dante held responsible for the
Among other pos1t1ons, Dante was reprehensible political and therefore moral
appointed as a papal ambassador in Rome. situation of the city he loved so greatly, but
In Florence at this time, there was a division was ultimately exiled from. While only
between two political parties, the Guelphs native Italians may have immediately
who were the party of the pope, and the recognized many of these political allusions,
Ghibellines who were the party of the throughout history some of these characters
emperor. Dante was classified as a Guelph have become more notorious and therefore
who in theory supported the pope over the serve as suitable allusions for Dante to use
emperor (Royal 24). The Guclphs later to voice his political frustrations to the
divided into two separate groups, the Whites world.
and the Blacks. The Black Guelphs Two of these political allusions are made
eventually gained control of Florence and it in reference to Mosca dei Lamberti, and the
was during this time that Dante, a strong Amidei and Donati families, whose feuding
voice for the White Guelphs, was brought up led to the split that resulted in the formation
on fabricated charges. When Dante was of the Guelphs and the Ghibellines. Dante
unable to appear at a trial to defend himself, himself was a member of the Donati family
he was exiled from Florence forever (Royal through the marriage to one of the Donati
26). daughters, Gemma to whom he was
This information helps illustrate the betrothed in 1277 and later had at least three
personal motivation that drove Dante to children with (Forman 2). Dante alludes to
write portions of the Inferno. Because he Mosca as a sinner confined in the circle of
was denied the opportunity to defend Hell reserved for those who sowed discord
himself and help try to rectify the political and scandal, and counseled evil (Alighieri
situation in Florence, Dante chose to write a 182).
poem that he hoped would have a better The story behind Mosca's placement in
chance of achieving his objective of Hell begins in the early thirteenth century,
unifying the Florentine people and ridding when a man named Buondelmonte
the city of what he believed were social and de'Buondelmonti, a leader in Florence, was
moral evils. The lnfemo presented the betrothed to a member of the Amidei family.
perfect place to attempt to achieve this idea, He broke this engagement, which in those
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days was considered as binding as a creating an evil scandal that made the family
marriage, and became engaged to a member members enemies (Vergani 65). His
of the Donati family (Vergani 65). Mosca punishment fits the alleged crime because
counseled the Amidei family that "a thing his brain that conjured up the stories that
done has an end," which the family took to caused the enmity between the father and
mean it was necessary to have son is now kept pennancntly separated from
Buondelmonte murdered. They followed his the rest of his body.
advice, and on Easter morning of 1215, they This allusion was motivated by a desire
had him executed. However, this did not to reveal the dangers of involving oneself in
bring an end to the matter because the political intrigue. Bertrand de Born was a
Donati family, newly allied to French troubadour from Limousin. A
Buondelmonte through the betrothal, were troubadour's profession was to record the
outraged and began a bloody vendetta truthful and actual historical events and
against the Amidei family and caused ideals of the twelfth and thirteenth centuries
Florence to become embroiled in conflict for in lyric poems. Bertrand was viscount of
many years to come ("Guelphs"). Hautefort in Perigord, and he later
The impact of this one man's counsel accompanied Richard the Lion Heart to
directly led to much of the political strife Palestine. He also served as an attendant to
that Florence faced during the thirteenth King Henry II of England. It was at this
century. Dante was heavily involved in time that he began conjuring up the stories
politics during his life, and the conflicts that were aimed at turning the father against
between the Guelphs and the Ghibellines his sons ("Bertrand"). Dante includes this
therefore had a great deal of impact on his allusion to the sins and horrible punishment
political career. It also had an impact on his of Bertrand in order to illustrate his disgust
personal life since his wife was a member of at such actions. He believed that Bertrand
one of the warring families. These facts was given special talents by God, namely
point to the reason why Dante felt the need the gift of writing poetry, and instead of
to point out the error's in the ways of the using these talents for good, he used them to
one man who started the entire conflict in spread evil in the world in order to try to
Florence, and caused what Dante considered receive political favors.
to be a tragedy to befall his beloved Because of his actions in dealing with
homeland. The allusion also serves as a the King and his sons, and Dante's personal
lesson and warning for people to be wary of distaste for such actions, Dante reserved a
how they counsel others, because their special position as a sower of schism in
actions may have much more of an impact Hell. In addition to using the allusion to
then they may intend. warn against political intrigue and
The allusions to Mosca and the Amidei manipulation, Dante used this allusion as a
and Donati families are followed by an way to warn other authors and poets against
allusion to an individual who suffers a using their literary talents to do evil. In this
similar punishment in the same circle of way, Dante was illustrating two different
Hell as Mosca. This individual is Bertrand messages targeted at separate audiences.
de Born, who was forced to walk through Another political allusion Dante uses in
eternity with his head separated from his the Inferno that is also a mythological
body. The crime that Bertrand is said to allusion is that of Ulysses and Diomede.
have been condemned for is meddling These two together were responsible for
between the affairs of a father and his sons, many acts of political intrigue involving the
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events of the Trojan War. Both men arc example of an incongruence that is found in
confined in the eighth chasm of Hell, the the J11femo. While Dante earlier states that
realm of the evil counselors. While the two each person is judged by the standards of
men were not the cause of the Trojan War, their times, in this case Dante condemns the
their actions concerning the war were two men for something that in our day
considered acts of treachery by Dante. would have been considered an admirable
The Trojan War started as a result of a strategy in war. I Iowever, Dante considers
competition between three goddesses to these actions as acts of treachery based on
decide which was the fairest. When a the ideals and morals prevalent in his day,
shepherd named Paris was asked to decide and based on his personal view of morality
the matter, his reward was to be given the (Vergani 64). Dante manipulated this view
fairest woman in the land as his wife. This of condemnation in order to expose political
woman turned out to be Helen of Troy, who problems associated with his time, and in an
was already married to another man, effort to amplify the possible ramifications if
Menelaus the King of Sparta (Fisher). the citizens of Florence refused to see the
When Helen eloped with Paris, the Trojan errors of their political intrigue.
War began. Several men had previously Soon after Dante meets the souls of
pledged their allegiance to Helen, stating Ulysses and Diomede, he comes upon the
that they would defend her honor at all soul of Guido da Montcfeltro. Guido is
costs. These men were led by Ulysses and from the same region of Florence as Dante,
included Diomede. When the Trojan War and caJls himself a Latian. Dante uses this
began, Ulysses first tried to pass himself off allusion as an opportunity to present a
as being mad so that he would not have to character representative of a particular sin,
leave his wife and family over the matter, as a well as an opportunity to address the
but when this act failed he consented to then current political situation of his
gathering forces against Paris (Fisher 27). homeland. According to Dante, since dead
Among the evils that Dante condemned souls arc unable to see the present even
the two men for were planning the strategy though they have the ability to remember the
and attack of the Trojan horse, and stealing past and even in some cases predict the
the statue of Pallas, which guarded the gates future, Guido enquiries as to the present
to the city of Troy. The two were also state of ltaly. Dante proceeds to tell him of
responsible for separating the two lovers the political problems and mishandling of
Achilles and Deidamia. As a result of the the provinces in question. He also expresses
separation, Deidamia is said to have died of his dismay regarding the badly equipped
a broken heart, leaving her death on the two rulers and the immorality that they have
men's hands as well (Vergani 62). Dante often spread to the common people
used this allusion because the characters {Alighieri 176).
would have been well known representatives Guido da Montefeltro was a count and a
of their crimes during his time. He wanted famous warrior, as well as one of the great
to use an allusion that would have a great Ghibelline leaders. He later repented for his
impact on the views of his readers in order sins as a soldier and became a Franciscan
to cause them to be wary of acting in a monk. His goal was to get to Heaven
similar manner when dealing with conflicts through a newly directed path of
in the future. righteousness. However, along the way he
Along with representing incorrect and was approached by Pope Boniface VIII, who
sinful actions of war, this allusion is an was waging war against fellow Christians,
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