alison margaret oram women teachers in state schools in england and wales 1900-1939

387 Pages·2014·11.58 MB·English

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ALISON MARGARET ORAM
WOMEN TEACHERS IN STATE SCHOOLS IN ENGLAND AND WALES 1900-1939:
THE DEVELOPMENT OF FEMINIST ALLEGIANCE AND POLITICAL STRATEGIES
Thesis submitted for the degree of PhD
London School of Economics and Political Science
UMI Number: U079637
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ABSTRACT
Women teachers working in local authority elementary and
secondary schools from the turn of the century to the Second World War
were heavily engaged in political activity concerning their own
position as women in teaching. This thesis investigates the reasons
for women teachers' strong feminist allegiance and the strategies
which they used to pursue their aims.
Women teachers were politicised as feminists by experiencing
tensions within the structures and meanings of their working and
personal lives. In particular, the stresses and tensions between two
identities, that of the professional teacher and that of the feminine
woman, coupled with their experiences within the teachers'
professional associations and the influence of the suffrage movement,
meant that both elementary and secondary school teachers became
increasingly receptive to feminist ideas in the years before the First
World War.
It is further argued that the particular process of
politicisation had effects on the type of feminist politics and
strategies that women teachers espoused. The dual elements of
professional ism and femininity are analogous to the major
philosophical strands within feminism of 'equality' and ' difference'.
Feminist women teachers preferred to emphasise the former, and
developed a political rhetoric of equal gender-free professionalism
rather than one which highlighted their ' difference' as women. The
teachers offer an important case study in assessing the utility of
either feminist approach in the interwar period of gender antagonism
and crisis of masculinity.
Women teachers' position as both women and professionals was
particularly difficult in relation to their marital status. They were
predominantly single in a period in vhich marriage and motherhood
signified full adult femininity. In this area, feminist politics fed
back into teachers' personal lives, providing a defence of their
position as spinsters and offering new forms of women's community
adapted to the twentieth century.
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TABLE OF CONTENTS
Page
Abstract 2
Table of Contents 3
List of Tables 6
Acknowledgements 7
Abbreviations 8
CHAPTER ONE INTRODUCTION 9
The Factors in Women's Politicisation 17
Outline of Thesis 24
References to Chapter One 29
CHAPTER TWO 'THE GREATEST PROFESSION OPEN TO WOMEN EXCEPT MOTHERHOOD
ITSELF': THE ATTRACTIONS OF TEACHING AS A CAREER: 1900-1939 34
Images of Teaching: Professional ism and Maternal ism 36
The Appeal of Teaching: Academic Work with Children 44
The Appeal of Teaching: A Well Paid, Secure Career 48
Teacher Education and Training: Pride in Professional
Achievements 58
Conclusion 67
References to Chapter Two 70
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CHAPTER THREE BEING A WOMAN AND A TEACHER: WORK, FAMILY LIFE AND
MOVING TOWARDS FEMINISM 79
SECTION ONE: FEMININITY AND SEEKING MARRIAGE 84
Negotiating Spinsterhood and Femininity 90
SECTION TWO: THE MALE BREADWINNER AND THE HOUSEWIFE 100
Negotiating The Male Breadwinner Ideal 110
SECTION THREE: GENDER AND AUTHORITY 123
Men Teachers: Shifting Masculinities 1900-1939 124
Women Teachers: Resolving Conflicts Over Authority 133
Conclusion 142
References to Chapter Three 146
CHAPTER FOUR MEMBERSHIP OF THE TEACHERS' ASSOCIATIONS: THE
DEVELOPMENT OF FEMINIST AWARENESS AND POLITICAL STRATEGIES 1900-1920
165
SECTION ONE: JOINING THE TEACHERS' ASSOCIATIONS AND BECOMING
FEMINISTS 170
The Growth of Teachers' Associations and their Changing
Professional Character 170
Joining the Teachers' Associations: Confirming a Professional
Identity 174
Women Teachers and Feminism 177
SECTION TWO: DEVELOPING FEMINIST STRATEGIES 183
Feminism in the Teachers' Associations: Challenging the Men 184
Professional ism: Feminine or Feminist? 185
The Debate Over Suffrage 190
Equal Pay and Opportunities 200
Women Working with Men Teachers 207
Conclusion 210
References to Chapter Four 213
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CHAPTER FIVE EQUAL OR DIFFERENT?: WOMEN TEACHERS* FEMINIST STRATEGIES
1920-1939 228
Strategic and Rhetorical Choices for Women Teachers 228
Rhetorical Choices: Equality and Difference 233
Masculinity and Difference 239
Masculine Rhetoric: The Effects on the NUT 242
Promotion Prospects 246
Equal Pay 253
The Marriage Bar 261
Conclusion 269
References to Chapter Five 274
CHAPTER SIX: THWARTED SPINSTERS?: MARITAL STATUS, FEMINIST POLITICS
AND WOMEN TEACHERS BETWEEN THE WARS 288
Sexology, Psychology and Hostility to Spinster Teachers 290
Dealing with the Spinster Image: Women Teachers' Responses 297
Feminist Politics and Spinster Teachers 301
Redefining Spinsterhood 307
Spinster Teachers and Women's Communities 317
Conclusion 326
References to Chapter Six 329
CHAPTER SEVEN CONCLUSION 339
References to Chapter Seven 348
APPENDIX OF TABLES 350
SELECT BIBLIOGRAPHY 362
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LIST OF TABLES
Note to the Tables 350
1. Total Number of Teachers of All Grades in Public Elementary
Schools 1900-1938. 351
2. Number of Teachers of Various Grades in Public Elementary Schools
1900-1938. 352
3. Secondary Schools on the Grant List 1902-1938. 353
4. Secondary Schools on the Grant List: Number of Teachers 1909-
1938. 354
5. Membership of the National Union of Teachers 1900-1929. 355
6. Percentage of Certificated Men Teachers in Charge of Different
Types of Class 1921-1938. 356
7. Percentage of Certificated Women Teachers in Charge of Different
Types of Class 1921-1938. 357
8. Number and Qualifications of Head Teachers of Elementary Schools
1902-1938. 358
9. Percentage of Certificated Teachers Who Were Head Teachers in
Public Elementary Schools, 1902-1938. 359
10. Membership of the National Association of Schoolmasters 1920-
1940. 360
Figure 1. Membership of the National Union of Teachers 1900-1929:
Women and Men. 361
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ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS
I would like to thank my supervisor, Jane Lewis, for her always
helpful and detailed comments on my work.
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ABBREVIATIONS
AAM Association of Assistant Mistresses
AHM Association of Head Mistresses
ALMWT Association of London Married Women Teachers
AMA Assistant Masters Association
LCC London County Council
LEA Local Education Authority
LTA London Teachers Association
NAS National Association of Schoolmasters
NFWT National Federation of Women Teachers (Later NUWT)
NUSEC National Union of Societies for Equal Citizenship
NUT National Union of Teachers
NUWSS National Union of Women's Suffrage Societies
NUWT National Union of Women Teachers
NUWW National Union of Women Workers
TES Times Educational Supplement
TSSC Teaching Staff Sub-Committee
WFL Women* s Freedom League
WLGS Women's Local Government Society
WSPU Women's Social and Political Union
WTFU Women Teachers Franchise Union