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Recent Advances in Biotechnology (Volume 6) Algal Biotechnology for Fuel Applications Edited by Hüseyin Karaca Chemical Engineering Department, Engineering Faculty, Inonu University, Elazig Road 15th km, 44280-Campus, Malatya, Turkey & Cemil Koyunoğlu Energy Systems Engineering Department, Engineering Faculty, Yalova University, Yalova, Turkey (cid:53)(cid:72)(cid:70)(cid:72)(cid:81)(cid:87)(cid:3)(cid:36)(cid:71)(cid:89)(cid:68)(cid:81)(cid:70)(cid:72)(cid:86)(cid:3)(cid:76)(cid:81)(cid:3)(cid:37)(cid:76)(cid:82)(cid:87)(cid:72)(cid:70)(cid:75)(cid:81)(cid:82)(cid:79)(cid:82)(cid:74)(cid:92) Volume # 6 Algal Biotechnology for Fuel Applications Editors: Hüseyin Karaca & Cemil Koyunoğlu ISSN (Online): 2468-5372 ISSN (Print): 2468-5364 ISBN (Online): 978-981-5051-00-1 ISBN (Print): 978-981-5051-01-8 ISBN (Paperback): 978-981-5051-02-5 ©2022, Bentham Books imprint. Published by Bentham Science Publishers Pte. Ltd. Singapore. All Rights Reserved. First published in(cid:3)2022. 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Ltd. 80 Robinson Road #02-00 Singapore 068898 Singapore Email: [email protected] BSP-EB-PRO-9789815051001-TP-349-TC-15-PD-20221004 CONTENTS PREFACE ................................................................................................................................................ i LIST OF CONTRIBUTORS .................................................................................................................. ii CHAPTER 1 INTRODUCTION .......................................................................................................... 1 Cemil Koyunoğlu and Hüseyin Karaca INTRODUCTION .......................................................................................................................... 1 Photobioreactors ..................................................................................................................... 10 Heterotrophic Bioreactors ....................................................................................................... 10 Outdoor Pools ......................................................................................................................... 11 CONCLUSION .............................................................................................................................. 12 CONSENT FOR PUBLICATION ................................................................................................ 12 CONFLICT OF INTEREST ......................................................................................................... 12 ACKNOWLEDGEMENT ............................................................................................................. 12 REFERENCES ............................................................................................................................... 12 CHAPTER 2 ANAEROBIC ALGAL BIOTECHNOLOGY ............................................................ 15 Ece Polat INTRODUCTION .......................................................................................................................... 15 Step 1: Hydrolysis ................................................................................................................... 16 Step 2: Fermentation or Acidogenesis .................................................................................... 17 Step 3: Acetogenesis ............................................................................................................... 17 Step 4: Methanogenesis .......................................................................................................... 17 BIOGAS PRODUCTION VIA ANAEROBIC DIGESTION ..................................................... 22 Biogas Production Global Overview ...................................................................................... 22 Costs ........................................................................................................................................ 31 Agricultural Waste Products (Mostly Slurry and Fertilizer): 0 USD / GJ - 6 USD / GJ ........ 32 CONCLUSION .............................................................................................................................. 34 CONSENT FOR PUBLICATION ................................................................................................ 34 CONFLICT OF INTEREST ......................................................................................................... 34 ACKNOWLEDGEMENT ............................................................................................................. 34 REFERENCES ............................................................................................................................... 34 CHAPTER 3 THERMAL LIQUEFACTION BASED ALGAL BIOTECHNOLOGY .................. 38 Cemil Koyunoğlu and Hüseyin Karaca INTRODUCTION .......................................................................................................................... 38 THERMAL LIQUEFACTION TECHNOLOGY ...................................................................... 43 CONCLUSION .............................................................................................................................. 53 CONSENT FOR PUBLICATION ................................................................................................ 53 CONFLICT OF INTEREST ......................................................................................................... 53 ACKNOWLEDGEMENT ............................................................................................................. 53 REFERENCES ............................................................................................................................... 53 CHAPTER 4 BIODIESEL PRODUCTION FROM ALGAE OIL .................................................. 59 Fevzi Yaşar INTRODUCTION ......................................................................................................................... 60 Algae Oil Characterization And Fatty Acid Distribution ....................................................... 60 Biodiesel Production from Algae Oil ..................................................................................... 64 EXPERIMENTAL .......................................................................................................................... 64 RESULTS AND DISCUSSIONS .................................................................................................. 68 Analysis of Fuel Properties of Algae Oil Biodiesel ................................................................ 68 Evaluation of Fuel Properties .................................................................................................. 68 CONCLUSION .............................................................................................................................. 70 CONSENT FOR PUBLICATION ................................................................................................ 71 CONFLICT OF INTEREST ......................................................................................................... 71 ACKNOWLEDGEMENT ............................................................................................................. 71 REFERENCES ............................................................................................................................... 71 CHAPTER 5 ALGAL BIODIESEL CHEMICAL CHARACTERIZATION ................................. 73 Cemil Koyunoğlu and Fevzi Yaşar INTRODUCTION .......................................................................................................................... 73 ALGAE OIL AND ITS PROPERTIES ....................................................................................... 74 ANALYSIS OF FUEL PROPERTIES OF ALGAE OIL BIODIESEL ................................... 91 CONCLUSION .............................................................................................................................. 95 CONSENT FOR PUBLICATION ................................................................................................ 95 CONFLICT OF INTEREST ......................................................................................................... 95 ACKNOWLEDGEMENT ............................................................................................................. 95 REFERENCES ............................................................................................................................... 95 CHAPTER 6 MICROBIAL FUEL CELLS (MFCS) TECHNOLOGY ........................................... 98 Mesut Yılmazoğlu INTRODUCTION .......................................................................................................................... 98 Microbial Fuel Cells (MFCs) .................................................................................................. 100 ANODE MATERIALS .................................................................................................................. 102 CATHODE MATERIALS ............................................................................................................ 103 MEMBRANE MATERIALS ........................................................................................................ 104 MFC TYPES .................................................................................................................................. 105 TWO-CHAMBER MFC ................................................................................................................ 105 SINGLE-CHAMBER MFC .......................................................................................................... 107 CONCLUSION .............................................................................................................................. 108 CONSENT FOR PUBLICATION ................................................................................................ 109 CONFLICT OF INTEREST ......................................................................................................... 109 ACKNOWLEDGEMENT ............................................................................................................. 109 REFERENCES ............................................................................................................................... 109 CHAPTER 7 ALGAE CULTIVATION IN DIFFERENT SYSTEMS ............................................ 113 Fevzi Yaşar INTRODUCTION .......................................................................................................................... 113 OPEN POND SYSTEMS ............................................................................................................... 114 CLOSED POND SYSTEMS .......................................................................................................... 116 VARIOUS PHOTOBIOREACTORS FOR ALGAL CULTIVATION ..................................... 116 Vertical Column Photobioreactors .......................................................................................... 116 TUBULAR PHOTOBIOREACTOR ........................................................................................... 118 Helical Tubular Photobioreactors ........................................................................................... 119 Bubble Column Photobioreactor (BC-PBR) ........................................................................... 120 Flat Plate Photobioreactor ....................................................................................................... 121 Heterotrophic Cultivation ....................................................................................................... 123 Mixotrophic Cultivation ......................................................................................................... 123 Integrated Systems .................................................................................................................. 125 CONCLUSION .............................................................................................................................. 127 CONSENT FOR PUBLICATION ................................................................................................ 127 CONFLICT OF INTEREST ......................................................................................................... 127 ACKNOWLEDGEMENT ............................................................................................................. 127 REFERENCES ............................................................................................................................... 127 CHAPTER 8 USE OF MICROBIAL FUEL CELLS (MFCS) IN FOOD INDUSTRY WASTEWATER TREATMENT ........................................................................................................... 133 Mesut Yılmazoğlu INTRODUCTION .......................................................................................................................... 133 COMPONENTS OF MFC ............................................................................................................. 134 Anode Cell .............................................................................................................................. 134 Cathode Cell ............................................................................................................................ 135 PROTON SELECTIVE MEMBRANE ....................................................................................... 135 ELECTRICTY FORMATION IN MFCS ................................................................................... 135 FOOD INDUSTRY WASTEWATER CHARACTERIZATION ............................................. 136 Food Industry Wastewater Treatment ..................................................................................... 137 Use of MFCs in Food Industry Wastewater Treatment .......................................................... 139 CONSEQUENCE-RESTRICTING FACTORS ......................................................................... 141 CONCLUSION .............................................................................................................................. 142 CONSENT FOR PUBLICATION ................................................................................................ 143 CONFLICT OF INTEREST ......................................................................................................... 143 ACKNOWLEDGEMENT ............................................................................................................. 143 REFERENCES ............................................................................................................................... 143 CHAPTER 9 DEVELOPMENT OF ALGAE OIL PRODUCTION WITH ECOLOGICAL ENGINEERING ...................................................................................................................................... 145 Cemil Koyunoğlu and Hüseyin Karaca INTRODUCTION .......................................................................................................................... 145 FINDINGS ....................................................................................................................................... 146 CONCLUSION ............................................................................................................................... 147 CONSENT FOR PUBLICATION ................................................................................................ 148 CONFLICT OF INTEREST ......................................................................................................... 148 ACKNOWLEDGEMENT ............................................................................................................. 148 REFERENCES ............................................................................................................................... 148 CHAPTER 10 MICROALGAE CULTURE ....................................................................................... 149 Oya Işık1 and Leyla Uslu INTRODUCTION .......................................................................................................................... 149 CULTIVATION OF ALGAE IN PONDS ................................................................................... 151 3. PHOTOBIOREACTORS ......................................................................................................... 152 CONCLUSION .............................................................................................................................. 159 CONSENT FOR PUBLICATION ................................................................................................ 160 CONFLICT OF INTEREST ......................................................................................................... 160 ACKNOWLEDGEMENT ............................................................................................................. 160 REFERENCES ............................................................................................................................... 160 CHAPTER 11 DIFFERENT SPECIES OF ALGAE ......................................................................... 162 Cemil Koyunoğlu and Hüseyin Karaca INTRODUCTION .......................................................................................................................... 162 KEY FEATURES FOR DETERMINING ALG SPECIES ....................................................... 163 Temperature ............................................................................................................................ 163 pH ............................................................................................................................................ 163 Dissolved Oxygen (mg/l) ........................................................................................................ 163 Electrical Conductivity (μS/cm) ............................................................................................. 163 Salinity (%) ............................................................................................................................. 163 ALGAE SPECIES .......................................................................................................................... 163 Chroococcus turgidus .............................................................................................................. 163 Chroococcus limneticus ................................................................................................ 164 Chroococcus minimus ................................................................................................... 165 Chroococcus minör ....................................................................................................... 165 Microcystis aeruginosa ................................................................................................. 165 Microcystis flos-aquae .................................................................................................. 166 Gomphosphaeria aponina ............................................................................................. 167 Merismopedia Tenuissima ............................................................................................ 167 Merismopedia minima ................................................................................................... 168 Merismopedia punctata ................................................................................................. 168 Aphanocapsa incerta ..................................................................................................... 169 Pseudanabaena limnetica ............................................................................................. 170 Oscillatoria limosa Ag .................................................................................................. 170 Oscillatoria rubescens .................................................................................................. 171 Oscillatoria tenuis ......................................................................................................... 172 Oscillatoria brevis ......................................................................................................... 172 Oscillatoria brevis ......................................................................................................... 172 Oscillatoria amphibia ................................................................................................... 173 Oscillatoria prolifica ..................................................................................................... 174 Oscillatoria princeps ..................................................................................................... 174 Lyngbya limnetica ......................................................................................................... 175 Lyngbya contorta .......................................................................................................... 175 Oscillatoria majör ......................................................................................................... 175 Lyngbya wollei .............................................................................................................. 175 Oscillatoria formosa ..................................................................................................... 177 Phormidium ambiguum ................................................................................................. 177 Anabaenopsis elenkinii .................................................................................................. 178 Anabaena affinis ............................................................................................................ 179 Anabaena flos-aquae ..................................................................................................... 179 Anabaena catenula ........................................................................................................ 180 Spirulina Laxissima ....................................................................................................... 181 Arthrospira majör ......................................................................................................... 181 Spirulina nordstedtii ...................................................................................................... 181 Plectonema notatum ...................................................................................................... 182 Cystoseira barbata ........................................................................................................ 182 Ulva rigida .................................................................................................................... 183 Gracilaria verrucose ..................................................................................................... 183 Chroococcus nägeli ....................................................................................................... 184 Chroococcus dimidiatus ................................................................................................ 185 Pleurococcus minör ...................................................................................................... 185 Gloeocapsa kützing ....................................................................................................... 185 Gloeocapsa quaternata ................................................................................................. 186 Spirulina turpin Ex gomont ........................................................................................... 186 Spirulina subsalsa oersted ............................................................................................ 187 Spirulina subtilissima kützing ....................................................................................... 187 Spirulina meneghiniana (zanardini) gomont ................................................................ 187 Spirulina Major kützing ................................................................................................ 188 Leptolyngbya ................................................................................................................. 189 Leptolyngbya tenuis ...................................................................................................... 189 Planktolyngbya .............................................................................................................. 190 Planktolyngbya subtilis ................................................................................................. 191 Limnothrix ..................................................................................................................... 193 Limnothrix amphigranulata .......................................................................................... 193 Jaaginema anagnostidis ................................................................................................ 195 Jaaginema pseudogeminata .......................................................................................... 195 Oscillatoria vaucher ...................................................................................................... 195 Oscillatoria princeps vaucher ex gomont ..................................................................... 196 Oscillatoria proteus skuja ............................................................................................. 196 Oscillatoria boryana bory ............................................................................................. 197 Oscillatoria calcuttensis Biswas ................................................................................... 197 Lyngbya C. agardh ex gomont ...................................................................................... 197 Lyngbya contorta lemmermann ..................................................................................... 198 Phormidium kützing ex gomont ..................................................................................... 198 Phormidium chlorinum (kützing) .................................................................................. 199 Phormidium willei ......................................................................................................... 199 Phormidium terebriforme .............................................................................................. 199 Phormidium amphibium ................................................................................................ 200 Phormidium formosum .................................................................................................. 200 Phormidium splendens .................................................................................................. 201 Calothrix thermalis ....................................................................................................... 201 Calothrix marchica lemmermann ................................................................................. 201 Mastigocladus cf. laminosus ......................................................................................... 201 CONCLUSION .............................................................................................................................. 202 CONSENT FOR PUBLICATION ................................................................................................ 202 CONFLICT OF INTEREST ......................................................................................................... 202 ACKNOWLEDGEMENT ............................................................................................................. 203 REFERENCES ............................................................................................................................... 203 CHAPTER 12 LIPID PRODUCTION IN MICROALGAE ............................................................. 279 Leyla Uslu and Oya Işık INTRODUCTION .......................................................................................................................... 279 CONCLUSION .............................................................................................................................. 286 CONSENT FOR PUBLICATION ................................................................................................ 286 CONFLICT OF INTEREST ......................................................................................................... 286 ACKNOWLEDGEMENT ............................................................................................................. 286 REFERENCES ............................................................................................................................... 287 CHAPTER 13 THE SCIENCE OF CATALYSTS IN ALGAE OIL PRODUCTION ................... 288 Cemil Koyunoğlu and Hüseyin Karaca HOMOGEN CATALYSTS ............................................................................................................ 288 HETEROGEN CATALYSTS ................................................................................................ 291 Lipase Catalysts ...................................................................................................................... 296 ENZYME DETENTION METHODS ......................................................................................... 297 ADVANTAGES OF CAPTURING ENZYMES ......................................................................... 297 ADSORPTION ............................................................................................................................... 298 TRAPPING ENZYMES ................................................................................................................ 298 ENCAPSULATION ....................................................................................................................... 298 IONIC BONDING ......................................................................................................................... 298 COVALENT BONDING ............................................................................................................... 299 Covalent Binding of Lipase to Perlite Support ...................................................................... 299 CROSS-LINKING ......................................................................................................................... 299 CONCLUSION .............................................................................................................................. 300 CONSENT FOR PUBLICATION ................................................................................................ 300 CONFLICT OF INTEREST ......................................................................................................... 300