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Algal Biofuel SUSTAINABLE SOLUTION Algal Biofuel SUSTAINABLE SOLUTION Editors Richa Kothari • Vinayak V Pathak • V VT yagi THE ENERGY AND RESOURCES INSTITUTE Creating Innovative Solutions for a Sustainable Future First published 2023 by CRC Press 4 Park Square, Milton Park, Abingdon, Oxon, OX14 4RN and by CRC Press 6000 Broken Sound Parkway NW, Suite 300, Boca Raton, FL 33487-2742 © The Energy and Resources Institute CRC Press is an imprint of Informa UK Limited The right of the contributors to be identiﬁed as the author(s) of this work has been asserted in accordance with sections 77 and 78 of the Copyright, Designs and Patents Act 1988. All rights reserved. No part of this book may be reprinted or reproduced or utilised in any form or by any electronic, mechanical, or other means, now known or hereafter invented, including photocopying and recording, or in any information storage or retrieval system, without permission in writing from the publishers. For permission to photocopy or use material electronically from this work, access www. copyright.com or contact the Copyright Clearance Center, Inc. (CCC), 222 Rosewood Drive, Danvers, MA 01923, 978-750-8400. For works that are not available on CCC please contact [email protected] Trademark notice: Product or corporate names may be trademarks or registered trademarks, and are used only for identiﬁcation and explanation without intent to infringe. Print edition not for sale in South Asia (India, Sri Lanka, Nepal, Bangladesh, Pakistan or Bhutan). British Library Cataloguing-in-Publication Data A catalogue record for this book is available from the British Library ISBN: 9781032425450 (hbk) ISBN: 9781032425467 (pbk) ISBN: 9781003363231 (ebk) DOI: 10.4324/9781003363231 Typeset in Times New Roman by TERI Press, New Delhi – 110 003 Foreword Application of microalgal biomass as a renewable source of energy has gained the attention of researchers around the world. Biomass-based fuel generation became more important after the 1990 oil crisis. Deterioration of air quality and climate change appeared as a result of rapid consumption of fossil fuel. Hence, it is extremely important to develop sources of energy that can not only replace the conventional fuel but also have a positive impact on the environment. Algal Biofuel: Sustainable Solution primarily focuses on the different aspects of bioenergy production using algal biomass as microalgae are considered the optimum feedstock for bioenergy production. The major aim is to thoroughly review the available bioenergy options, challenges in bioenergy production, availability of bioenergy feedstock, and biomass to bioenergy conversion process. This book also highlights the feasibility of lignocellulosic biomass, crop residues, and non-edible oil seeds for generation of different bioenergy products. It will be helpful for researchers and other stakeholders working in the area of bioenergy production for development of innovative concepts in emerging areas of bioenergy. It is not possible for a single book to convey all dimensions of the bioenergy technologies, so application of algal biomass for other value-added products has not been included in this book. Algal Biofuel: Sustainable Solution begins with an introduction of a biorefinery approach and its importance in promoting bioeconomy (Chapter 1). With a biorefinery approach, we can implement bioenergy in less economically advanced countries and create new job opportunities in the bioenergy sector. Microalgae are considered as potential bioenergy feedstock and this source of energy is constantly being researched, so the recent advancements happening with microalgae are presented in Chapter 2. In Chapter 3, potential of biogas as a bioenergy option is discussed with support of recent updated trends in the fields. Chapter 4 provides an overview on the potential of algal-based biohydrogen as afuture bioenergy option. Crop residues, which are mainly composed of lignocellulosic biomass, can be used for bioenergy production as a part of waste management process. In this context, Chapters 5 and 6 review the comparative vi Foreword potential of lignocellulosic biomass and algae for bioethanol production and the potential of crop residues for bioenergy production. The main downstream process in algal biofuel production involves harvesting. Chapter 7 provides a detailed analysis on magnetic harvesting of algal biomass for cost effective biofuel production. The potential of non-edible oil for biodiesel production is explained in Chapter 8. Chapter 9 not only reflects on the bioenergy application of algal biomass but also its key role in climate change mitigation through carbon sequestration. Environmental aspects of biomass-based bioenergy generation is equally important to ensure the sustainability of bioenergy. Thus, Chapter 10 describes the role of modern bioenergy applications for control of particulate emissions. In Chapter 11, applicability of immobilized algal cells for wastewater treatment is reviewed, which is extremely important to achieve a cost-effective biofuel production process. The role of a biotechnological approach for generation of various bioenergy products is explained in Chapter 12, while methods for enhancement of lipid content, which is one of the key attractions for researchers, is reviewed in Chapter 13. By providing this information in an easily accessible format, my hope is that newer workers in this field will be able to produce more reliable research, which will be significant to understanding newer dimensions of bioenergy technologies based on sustainable feedstock. Professor John Korstad Oral Roberts University Preface Energy sustainability has become a very important concern among researchers and policymakers. Present energy situation around the globe is unsustainable due to unequal distribution of natural resources as well as different environmental, geopolitical, and economical concerns. Rise in population with accelerated increase in industrial sector has led to rapid increase in the consumption of energy sources, which will make them extinct soon. Major developing countries such as India are heavily dependent on fossil fuels (coal, oil, natural gas) to meet their energy demand of the transportation and industrial sector. Further, to combat environmental pollution and mitigate the effects of greenhouse gases, it has become imperative that an alternative energy source is found which is sustainable and renewable. Biofuel is one such renewable, sustainable, and affordable energy source that has the potential to replace conventional energy sources. Biomass has been directly combusted for a long time; however, it generates severe incontinence cost and pollution cost. Therefore, modern applications that use advance conversion processes can make biomass more efficient for energy production. By employing specific conversion processes, bioenergy can be derived in solid, liquid or gaseous forms. Liquid biofuels such as biodiesel and bio-alcohol can replace fossil fuels. They can also be used in combination with fossil fuels so that the amount of fossil fuel consumption can be reduced. Despite such promising potential, biomass-based energy generation requires intensive research and development to become sustainable and affordable. Algal Biofuel: Sustainable Solution provides focused information on progressive trends in research and development with conversion strategies under the impactful stress conditions in bioenergy sector. The most-effective ways to valorize the available biomass resources with the concept of biorefinery, where each part of this biomass is utilized with generation of zero or near to zero- waste, have also been included in this book. Governments of many countries have constituted policy frameworks that ensure the optimum consumption of fossil fuel and develop renewable energy viii Preface sources. The policy initiatives in various countries have set a target to blend diesel with bio-alcohol and biodiesel so that dependency on fossil fuels can be reduced. The book points out the governance of biofuel at global and national level and explores the potential of biofuel in meeting the rising energy demand. Conventional feedstock of first-generation biofuel is associated with food- feed and biofuel trilemma; hence, it has less impact as a fossil fuel alternative. Similarly, second-generation biofuels are also involved with high water input and fertilizer support for feedstock development. Researchers have explored the potential of microalgae as a cleaner and greener alternative for fossil fuel replacement. Various algal strains of marine and freshwater habitat have been successfully investigated for high lipid accumulation, which is considered as precursor of biodiesel. The availability of algal biomass can be ensured for biofuel production process by employing effective cultivation and harvesting techniques, which is also termed as upstream processing for biofuel production. Algal biomass can be grown in open as well as close system and in this book authors have investigated the optimum culture conditions for enhancement of biomass. Researchers have found that culture conditions influence the lipid synthesis in algal biomass to a greater extent. Nutrient starvation and other stress conditions have been studied for the lipid induction in algal biomass. The practicality of these investigations for large-scale biodiesel production is still unexplored and plays crucial role in developing algal-based biofuel sector. The other technical step towards biodiesel production involves the conversion of fatty acid into fatty acid methyl esters. Conventional ways of transesterification have been found with limited yield efficiency and direct environmental impact. The approach of green transesterification process and other innovative conversion process have been found with higher efficiency than the conventional process. The feasibility of algal-based biofuel production depends on its yield efficiency and should be compatible in demand and supply chain. The chapters in this book focus towards the strategies to ensure the availability of algal biomass, effective cultivation, and harvesting techniques. The book explores a wide spectrum of bioenergy sources, including their applications. It also covers the latest information in the field of bioenergy technologies and their future prospect in relation to algal biomass. Bioenergy scenario provides waste to energy generation potential of various energy wastes including agriculture and solid waste. The book also gives impactful solutions to practical challenges with bioenergy technologies such as microalgal lipid for biodiesel extraction processes, different biotechnological approaches for bioenergy production, biodiesel from non-edible seeds among others. This book will be beneficial to both students and researches in the field of bioenergy generation. Contents Foreword v Preface vii 1. Biorefinery: A Future Approach for a Sustainable Bioeconomy 1 Introduction 1 Role of Government, Public, and Private Stakeholders 13 Conclusion 17 2. Algal Biomass Harvesting for Biofuel Production 23 Introduction 23 Harvesting Process 26 Future Prospects and Conclusions 48 3. Biogas as Bioenergy Option: Advances and Challenges 67 Introduction 67 Biochemical Processes of Anaerobic Digestion 69 Feedstock Materials 72 Microbial Community 74 Important Parameters 74 Properties of Biogas 78 Upgradation of Biogas 79 Types of Digesters 81 Applications of Biogas 81 Challenges/bottlenecks 85 Conclusion 87 4. Application of Algal Biomass as a Feedstock 93 for Fermentative Biohydrogen Production Introduction 93 Microalgae 95