Alfred Adler

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AlfredA dler
ALFREDA DLEB( 1870-1937A) dlel grervr -rpin nreclicinea t the Urriversity of Vier-rnarc,n -
a Vienna fanily ol'six boys zrndt r.r,o His tcreclp rirratep laclicc' ersn n ophthalmolo-
-girls.
blother diecl zisa very yoLurg bov in the bec'l gist, ancl Lhens hifteclt o genclal rneclicine.
luextt o Al{r:ed.A cllers carlv chilclhood u,as Ile errentually specializcd in neurology
not a l-rappyt inre. He u,zrss icklv and rrery ancl psvchizrtrv, zrnclh e had ei l<een intcr-
r-r-rr-rcehru ,au'ec, ifd eath. At age 4, he alnrost est in incurable clrildlroocld iseases.
clicclo f pnenrnonia. He hezrrclt he cloctor"t ell Adler I'racal passionaLec ()lrccl"nl or lhc
tris iather.t hat "Alfl ecl is lost." Acllel associ- cornnron person ancl r.r,aso utspol<ene rbrllrt
ateclt l'rist irne r,r,ithh is dccision to become chiIcl-r'earlinpgl actices, sclrool r-elbrms,z rnd
a pl'rvsicizu-rB. ecalrse he ri,zLsil l so nruclr prejtrclicest hzit lcsultecl irr conllicl. He
dr-rringl fre first fe lv ysarrso 1'h is lil'e, Acllcr' spol<ea ncl r,rrr"otien sinrl:rlc,n orrteclrnicrzrl
was pzurlperecbl y lris mother'. lzrngr-rargsco that the pr-rblic
Later he r,r,as" clethronecl"b y a cor-rlcrl -urclerstancal ncl apply
n gel' blother: IJe clcve<l lpecl tl-rcp lir-rciplcso f' his Indivicl-
-voll
a tr-trstingre lationshipr ,i,ithh is uarlP svchology.A dler'ls( 1959)
fa{lrel but dicl rrot ['ccl verv IJrtclerslurttlirtgH turtctrt Na-
close to his rnother'. Hc r'r,ns /11i-\c\,, ils tlrc fir'sl ttra.joIp sr'-
extlernely .jealor-rosl his olcter chologv lrool<i r,rs ell l-uncl'ccls
blotlrer', Sigmtrncl, r,irhichl ecl o{' thousirnclso l-copies ir-it he
Lo strainecl relationships bc- UrrilctlS talcs.A l'lers clving-i u
[\.vcen the trvo clr-rringc hilcl- Worlcl Wzu' I as a r.nedical o1'-
l-roocal nd ad<>lescenceG. irrcn f-rcer,A dlel crcatc'cl3 2 clrilcl
his eerrlyr ciatior-rshipr ,r,ithS ig- guidaruccc'l ir.ricsi n the Viennei
n-u,rncF[ reucl, r>nec zrnnot help prrblics clroolsa rrdb eg-artrr lrirr-
bnt sr-rspecttl rertp zrttcrns ['ronr ing tczrchers,s ocial r,r,or'l<crs,
his eally ftrrlily cor-rstellatiown ele r'cpeatecl phvsicians, arrc[c ither plol'essionerls.T -]e
in this reliilionship. pior.rcereclt he plactice ol' teaching pl'o-
Acllclis earlv venrs r,r,er-ceh aLzrctelizecl fessionals throtrglr live dernonstlations
by strtrggling to ovcrcome ilinesses ancl r,r,ithp alents ancl chilclrcn belil-e large ar-rcli-
fe elir-igso l'inl'eriority. Althciugh Acller Ielt cnces. 'fl-ie clinics hc Iounclecl gler.i, iir
inl'er-iort-o his brother ancl lris pecrs, he rrunrbe'r'zrrrcin[ populzrritr,,a nd he r.r,asir -r-
u,etsc [ete'r'r'nir-retcol corlpensate ltor' his clcl 'at i gable i n Ic 'cturin g anci clemo r-tstr a ti n-q
ph.vsical Iimitzitions, zrnclg raduailv I-ic' his u,orl<.
o\/crcz:llrer lany of his limit:rtions. Adlcl livecl by ein ovcr-clr.lu,clecul, or-l<
It is clear that Alflecl'se arly chilclhoocl schednle r-nosto f his prol'essiouzrlli l'e,1 ,s1
experienc-esl racl an irnpact on the {bln-ra- he still tocih sorle lir-r-ret o sing, enloy
tion ol.his theory. Acller is arne xample cil' nrnsic, zrnclb c u,i tl-r Il'iencls. In the r.r.rid-
arp erson r,r,hos hapc'd his or,r,nl ile as op- 1920s, he began leclur-ing in thc United
posed to having it determinecl by l'ate. States, ancl l-rel erter-n -racleI 'r'eqtrentv isits
Adler u,arsa poor sLr-rdentH. is teacher ad- ancl tor-rrs.F Ie igr-rorectll re rvzrrning of his
rrised his father to prepar:eA cller to be a I'r'ierrclsto slou, clou,r-ra, rncol n May 28, 1937,
shoer-nakerb, r-rtn ot rnnch else. With de- r,i,hilet al<inga urall(b efo r-ea schedulecll ec-
ter"minec'le ffolt Adler eventr-rallyl osL' lo turrei n Aberdeen, Scotlar.rclA, cller collzrpsed
the top ol l-risc lass. He wellt on to stndv zrnd diecl ol'I'renr:tf ailur-e.
93
94 PABTT WO THEORIFASN DT ECHNIOUFOSF C OUNSELING
: ;,. INTRODUCTION"
Along u,itl-iF reild and.Iung, Alfred Adler rvas a najor-contributor to the deve]-
opment of the psychodynamic approach to therapy. After 8 to 10 years of coi-
laboratior"r,F reud arrd Acller partecl conpany, r,r,ithF reud taking the position
tl-rat Adler \\/as a heretic r.r,hoh :rd deserted l'rin-r.A dler resigned as president of
the ViennerP sychoanalytic Society in 1911 and founded the Society for Indi-
vidual Psvchology in 1912. Frclrc1t hen erssertedth at it r,r,asn ot possibJet o sllp-
port Adlerian concepts and still remain in good standing as a psychoanalyst.
Late4 a nunber of other psychoanalysts deviated ir"orr-Fr reud's orthodox
position (see Chzrpter:4).T hese Freudian revisionists, rrlho inclr-rdedK arer-r
Horney, Erich Fromrr, and Haury Stach Sullivan, agreed that social ancl cul-
tr.rral Jaclors \\rere of gleart signi licar-rcei n sl-rapingp ersor-rality.E rzen tl-rougJ.r
thesc thrce thcrapists are typiczrlly called neo-Frelldians, it r,iould be more zrp-
propriate, ursH einz Ansbzrchcr (1979) h:rs suggestecl,t o reler to lhem as neo-
Acllerians because they moved au,ay from Freud's bioiogical ar-rdd eterrr-rinistic
point o1'r'icura nd tourard Acllcr'ss ociai-psvchological and teleoiogical (or goal-
or-ientecl)r ,ier,io, lt hur.nan natllre.
Acllei'str-essctsl. reu nity ol'personalily, contenclingl hat people can onl.yb e
unc{erstoocla s integrated and conrplete beir-rgsT. his rrieu,e spoLrsesth e pur-
poselttiln atLlrc of'behavior',e rlip.hasizingt hat r.r,herew e are strirzing to go is
urot'e importarrt than r,r,lrerer ,r,eh ave collre froll. Adler-sar,rh, nmans as both
tlre creators anci the creatiolrs ol'their or,r,nl ives; that is, peoplc clcvelop ir
r-rr.riclnset .vleo lt living tlrarti s botlr a lr-lo\/enlclrtt or,i,zu'da ncl an expr:cssiorro f
their selecleclg ozrls.L l this sense,w e cl'eateo ur.'selvelsa ther: than nrelely being
shapeclb y our chilcllroocle xpeLienc'cs.
Aftcr" Acller'sd ezrth ]n 1937, Rr-rcloll'Drcil<r-rurs,a s the nrost significarit iig-
Lrrei rr brir-rg^inAg cllclizrnp svcl'rologyt o the United States, especially as its prin-
ciples appliccl to eclr-rcation,i r.rcliviclull arrcl gr-oLi])t l'rc-r-npya,r rd faimily
counseling. Dreil<r-Lriss cr"editecrl ,r,ithg ivir-igi mpetns to the idezi of child guicl-
alrce celrters arrcll o tlairring prc-ifessionalsto r,rrokr r.i,itha rn,ider ange of clienls.
ri.',ivJ v r\/ r\ c
I\L I \,LJNCEPTS
Viewo f HumanN ature
Acller abancloncclF rcncl'sb asic tl.rcoriesb ecanse he belierrecFl reucl was exces-
sively nallow in his stless or-rb iological and instir-rctuzrdl eternir-ration. Adlcr
holcls that tbe iucliiricir-tabl egins to {on-n an applozlch to liFe somerthere ir-it he
'* I rr,nnt to aclinor.r']c'cl-glhee cliiigent eflirr-tsa ncl cortribritior.is ol'Dr'. .izrnresB itte l ol'East ll'cn-
ncsscc-S t.lle LJnivc'rsitr'in blilglir.rg this chal]Ler up to cl.ltea ncl lbl expanciing the section clc-aiing
u iLlr thc tlrelzrpeulicp r'occssa ncl pr':rcLica:lr ppliczrtions.
CHAPTE5R ADLERIATNH EBAPY : 95
first 6 years of living. Adler's focus is on how the person's perception of the
past and his or her interpretation of early events has a continuing inflr-rence.
On many theoretical grounds Adler was in opposition to Freud. According to
I Adler, for example, humans are motivated primarily by social relatedness
rather than by sexual Llrges; bel-ravior is purposel.ul and goal-directed; and
I
II consciousness, r-nore than unconsciousness, is the focus of therapy. Unlike
Freud, Adler stressesc hoice and responsibility, meaning in life, and the striv-
ing for sllccess, completion, ancl perfection. Adler and Freud created very con-
trasting theories, even though both men gre\ / Llp in the same city in the same
era and were educated as physicians at the same nnirrersity. Their individual
and verryd ifferent childhood experiences in their families were certainly key
factors that shaped their distinctly different views of hurnan natlrre (Schultz
& Schultz, 2001).
Adler's theory focuses on inferiority l'eelings, r,vhich he sees as a nornal
condition of all people and as a source of all human striving. Rather than
beir-rgc onsidered a sign of r,r'eaknesso r abnormality, ;""1ilrtr of inl'eriority can
be the wellspring of creativity. They rnotivate Lls to strive for mastery, sLlccess
(superiority), and completion. We are driven to overcon-leo Lrr sense of in[eri-
ority and to strive for increasingly higher levels of developrnent (Schultz &
Schultz, 2001). Indeed, at around 6 years of age our fictional vision of our-
selves as perfect or complete begir-rst o torm into a life goal. The life goal uni-
fies tl-rep ersonality and becomes the sollrce of human motivation; every
striving and every etfort to overcome inferiority is now in line rvith this goal.
From the Adlerian perspective, human behavior is not determined solely
by heredity and environment. Instead, we have the capacity to interpret, influ-
ence, and create evenls. Adler asserts that r,tthatw e \ /ere born with is not as
important as rvhat rve choose to do with the abilities and limitations we pos-
sess.A dler's theory is a psychology of "use" rather than of possession. Al-
though Adlerians reject the deterministic stance of Freud, they do not go to
the other extreme and maintain that individuals can become urhatevel they
want to be. Adlerians recognize thertb iological and environmental conditions
limit our capacity to choose erndt o create.
Adleriar-rsp r-rtt he focus on reeducating individuals and reshaping society.
Adler rvas the forerunner of a subjective approach to psychology that focuses
on internal deterrninants of behavior such as values, beliefs, attitudes, goals,
interests, and the individual perception of reality. He rvas a pioneer of an ap-
proach that is holistic, social, goal-oriented, systemic, and humanistic. Adler
was also the first systemic therapist, in that he n-raintained that it is essential
to understand people within the systems of which they are a part.
SubjectivPe erceptioonf Reality
Adlerians attempt to view the world from the client's subjectirzef rarne of ref-
erence,a n orientation describeda s phenomenological.T he approach is phe-
nomenologicali n that it pays attention to the individual rvay in which people
96 PARTT WO THEOBIEASN DT ECHNIOUEOSF C OUNSELING
perceive their r,rrolld. This "sr-rbjectirrer "eality" includes tl-rei r-rdirridual'sp elcep-
tions, thoughts, feelings, r,alnes,b eliefs, convictior-rs,a nd conchrsions. Behar.
ior is understood lr:om the vantage point of this surbjectivep erspectirre.F rom
the Adlerian perspectirre,o bjective leality is less important than hor,r,r ,rreil ter-
pret reality nncl the neanings r,rrea ttach to uuhatw L' L'.\perielrcc.
As you r,r,ills ee in subsequent chaptels, rrany contemporarv theories have
incorporated tlris r-roliono f the client's snbiectirrel rrorldrzier.arus a basic l'actor
explainir-rgb ehavior. Sone of tl-reo ther aipproachcs that have a phenomeno-
logicai perspective are existential tlrer"zrp.py,e rson-centerecl therapv, Gesteilt
therap1,,t he cognitive behaviorztl therapics, realit-v therapy, the postmodern
approaches, ancl some of the systemic thel'apies.
Unitya ndP atternosf HumanP ersonality
A basic prenise ol'Acllelizrn InclivicluuLP .sycltolo7t,ist l'rat per-sonzrlityc an oniy
be understoocl holistically ancl systenicarlly;t hal is, Llrei ncliviclirali s seen as
zrni ndivisible r,r,holeb, orn, rearecl,a r-rclli virrg in specific ferr-nilials, ocial, and
cultural contexts. People are social, creatirre,c lecision-rral<ingb eir-rgsr 'irhoa ct
u,ith purposc zrnclc annot be frrlly l<rror.r,or.urt sicle the corrtcxts tl'rat harrel rean-
ing ir-rt heil lives (Slrerman & Dinknreycr, 1987).
The hr-rr-nanp crsor-ralityb ecorles r-rnifiectlh rough clevelopr-nenot l'a Iife
goerl.A n ir-rclivicitral't.hso r-rghts,l 'eclings,b clicls, conrzictions,e rttitr-rdesc,h arac-
ter, ar-rda ctiorrs illr- c'xpi-essior-oisf 'l'ris or hel uniqr-rencsse, urcal ll reflect a plarn
o1'life that allours lor nlovenrcrrt tor,r,arcal sel[-selecteclli l'c goiil. An ir-nplica-
tior-ro f this holistic viera'o f persor-ralityis thal the clierrl is an iutcglal part of a
social systenl. "lhere is nrore ltocuso n intcrpersor-ralr elationslrips tl-r;rno n llre
inciiviclual'.sin tcr-naIo svchodvnanri cs.
BEHAVI0RA S PURP0SEFUALN DG 0AL-0RIENTEDln cliviclualP sycholog.v.r sslrnles
tl'rat all humzrn bel-rzrviohr as a pr-rrpose.l{ lnnans set goals ['or"L lrenrselvesa, nd
beharzior beconres r-rr-rifieidr- rt he colrtcxt ol'these goals. Thc concept ol the
purposel'trl natLlrc ol'behavior- is pclhiips Ilre cornerstor-reo I Adler's theory.
Ac1lerr eplaceclc leternrinistice xpleinationsr ,r,tih teleological (pr-rr.]-losirgzocz, ll-
or:ientecl)o tres. A bzrsica ssnrlption ol'lnclivicltrailP sychology is lheit we czrlr
onlv think, 1'cel,: rncle rcti n relation to oLrl pcrception r>l'or-rgr-o al. 'Il'rerefor-e,
we can be l'Lrllvl rnclcrstooclo nly ir-rI iglrt ol'knor.r,ir-rtglr e prrrposesa rndg oals
tor.r,ardr ,r'hichw e elres tririir-rg.A dlcliiins are interested ir-rt l're ['ulule, r,vithout
nrinirnizing the imporlance of pzrsti nlluences. They assLllre thzrtc lecisionsa r-e
based on tlrc pcrson'se xper-ienceso, n thc prcsent situation, ancl on tl'red irec-
tion in r,r,hicht he person is moving. They look for continr-iity by paying atten-
tion Lo themcs rr-rnningt hrougl'r a per-son'.lsil b.
Aclier r,r,zrisn flrrenceclb y tl-rep hilclsopher Hans Vziihinger's( 1965) rriervt lrat
people live by fic1ior-rs(o rvier,i,so l hr.ir,rt,h e r,r,orlds houlcl bc'). Marry Adleriar-rs
use the Lerrn/ictiortol lincLLisntto lel'el to an irlzrgineclc entrzil gonl tl'iertg r-rides
zl person's behavior. It s]roulcl be notccl, lror.r,evert-h, at Acller acttrzillv cezrsecl
ja:*::
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CHAPIE5R ADLERIATNH EBAPY i 97
Lrsingt his term and replacedi t with "guiding self-ideal"a nd "goal of perfec-
tion" to accollnt for our striving torvard superiority or perfectior-r( Watts &
Holden, 1994).V ery early in life r,r,eb egin to envision what rve rnight be like if
we were successfLllc,o mplete,w hole, or perfect. Applied to hurnan motiva-
tion, a guiding self-idealm ight be expressedi n this ivay: "Only when I am per-
fect can I be secure"o r "Only u,hen I am importal)t can I be accepted."T he
guidir-rgs elf-idealr epresentsa n individual'si mage of a goal of perfection, for
r.l'hichh e or she strivesi n any girrens ituation. Becanseo f oLlrs r,rbjectivfein al
goal, u,e have the creatirrep ower to chooser vhat we will accept as truth, how
we u,ill behave,a nd how we r,r,illi nterpret events.
STRIVINFG0 RS IGNIFICANACNED S UPERI0RITaYd ler stressesth at striving for
perfectiona nd coping with inferiority by seekingm asterya re innate (Ans-
bacher & Ansbacher,1 979).T o understandh uman behavior,i t is essentialt o
graspt he ideaso f basici nferiority and compensation.F rorr-ol ur ear]iesty ears,
rve recognize that we are helplessi n many ways, ra,hichi s characterized by
feelingso f inferiority. Tlris inferiority is not a negzrtivefa ctor in life. Accord-
ing to Adler;t he mornentr nree xperiencein feriority we are pulled by the striv-
ing for superiority.H e maintainst hat the goal of snccessp ulls peoplef on,vard
tonard mastety and enablest hem to over-comeo bstacles.T he goal of superi-
or:ityc ontributest o the developmento f hnman community. However,i t is im-
portant to note that "superiority,"a s usedb y Adler,d oesn ot necessarilym ean
being superior to others.R athel it meansm oving from a perceivedl orverp o-
sition to a perceivedh igher position, from a felt r-ninust o a felt ph-rs.P eople
cope r,rrithfe elingso f helplessnessb y striving for competence,m astery,a nd
perfection.T hey can seekt o changea \ /eakltessin to a strength,f or example,
or strive to excel in one area of concentration to compensatef or defects in
other areas.T he unique ways in rvhich people developa style of striving for
competencei s r,r,hact onstitutesi ndividuality.T he manner in which Adler re-
acted to his childhood and adolescente xperiencesm ade him a living example
of tl-risa specto f his theory.
LIFESTYLEA n individual'sc ore beliefsa nd assumptionst hror-rghw hicl-rt he
person organizesh is or her reality and finds meaning ir-rl ife eventsc ol-rstitutes
the individual'sl ifestyle.S ynonyms for this term inclurde" plan of life," "style of
life," "life movement," "strategy for living," and "road map of life." Lifestyle is
the connecting theme that unifies all our actions, and our lifestyle consists of
all our vallles and perceptionsr egarding self, others, and life. It is the charac-
teristic way we move toward our life goal. Adler saw us as actors, creators, and
artists. In striving for goals that have nreaning to us, \ /e develop a unique style
of life (Ansbacher;1 974).T his concept accolrntsf or why all of our behaviors fit
together to provide consistencyt o our actions. Understanding one'sl ifestyle is
somer.rrhalitk e understandingt he style of a composer: "We can begin wherever
q,e choose:e verye xpressionw ill lead us in the same direction-torvard the one
motive, the one meiody, around which the personality is built" (Adler, as cited
98 : PARTT WO THE0RIEASN 0T ECHNI0U0EFSC 0UNSELING
in Ansbacher & Ansbacher, 19 64, p. 33 2) . People are viewed as adopting a
proactive, rather than a reactive, approach to their social environment. Al-
though events in the environment influence the development of personality,
such events are not the causes of u,hat people becorne.
In striving for the goal of superiority, Adlerians believe some individuals
deveiop their inteilect; others, their artistic talent; others, athletic skiils; and
so on. These styles of life consist of people's views abont themselves and the
rvorld and their clistir-rctiveb ehaviors ancl hzrbitsa s they prlrsue personal goals.
Everything r,r,ed o is influenced by this unique lifestyle. Experiences r,r,ithin
the family and reiationships betrveen siblir-rgsc ontribute to development of
this self-consistent rvay of perceiving, thinking, feeling, and behaving.
Althor-rgh our unique style is created primarily during the first 6 years of
life, sr-rbsequenet vents nay have a profound effect or-rt he development of our
personality. Experiences in themsehresa re not the decisive fzrctors;r atherl it is
our interpretcLtiono f these events that shape personality. Faulty interpr-eta-
tions may lead to mistahen notions ir-ro nr plirzate logic, which rvill signifi-
cantly influence present behavior:.O nce rve become aware of the patterns and
continuity of or-rrl ives, rve are in a position to modil'y those faulty asslllxp-
tions and make basic changes. We can relr'zrnrec hilclhoocl experiences and
con.sci<tu-sclyr eate a new style ol life.
SociaIl nteresat ndC ommuniFtye eling
Socizrl interest and cornrruni tS zf eeling (G en te inscha/'tsg eli ilti) are pr-obably
Adierrs most significant and distinctive concepts (Ansbacher",1 992). These
terms refer to inclirzidr"ralasw' arenesso l'irei ng part of the human conrnrunity
ancl [o individtrarls'attitudes in clealingr ,r,itht lre social r,r,orlcl.
Social intere.sti ncludes stlirring for a better luture {or humanity. The so-
cizrlizzrtionp rocess, u,hicl-ib egir-rsin chilclhood, involves finding a plzice in
society arnda cqtriring a senseo I belonging erndo l'cor-rtlibuting (Kefir, 1981).
Socierli nterest is taught, lezrrnecla, nd used. Acller equated social ir-rteresti vith
a sense of identification and en-rpathyw ith others: "to see rvith the eyes of an-
other, to hear rr,ritht he ears o{' ernother;t o lcel u,ith tl're heart ol'another" (as
citecl in Ansbacher & AnsbarcLrer1,9 79,p . 42).Socizrli ntclest is the central in-
dicator of mental health. Those r,r,iths ocial irrterest tencl to ciirect the str:iving
tou,ard the healthy and socially uselirl sicleo f' lil'e. Fr:orrrt he Acller:iernp er-spec-
tive, as social interest develops, I'eelingso f infer:ior:i[ye rnda lienation dir-r-rir-rish.
People express socizrli nterest thror-rghs harecla ctirzitya nd mutual respect.
lndividual Psychology rests on a central belief tl'rato ur happiness and suc-
cess zlre largely relertedt o tl-riss ocial connectedness.T hose who lack Lhisc ont-
rt'tt.tttityfb eling becone discor-rrageda nd end r-rpo n the uselesss ide of life. Adler
noted that we are socially embedded ancl cannot be understood in isolation
Irrtm the social corltext. We seck a place in the farnily ancl in society to furlfill
basic needs for secr-rrity,a cceptance, and u,orthir-ress.M au1, of the problens
we expeljcnce ale lelated to the I'earo f not bcirrg acceptcd bv tlre aloups we
OHAPTIR5 ADtINIANT HERAPY 99
valLle.I l clr-rsr enseo f belorging is not fr-rll'illecal,n xietl, js the resr-rlLO. nly r,i,heu
r,r,efe cl nrriteclr ,r,,itho thels al'c wc arblet o act lrrith colrrzrgei r-rf acing ancl cleal-
ing r.r,itho r-rrp roblems (Acller; 1964).
Aclier taught that ure lnLrsts llcccssfuliy lrzrster threc trniversal liic Lasks:
builcling {'r'ienclship(ss ocial task), establishing irrtinrarcy( iove-rrar-r'izrgtca sl<),
ancl contr"ibtrting to scicict\,(ciccupationzrlt ash). All pcoplc ncecl to zrclclr-ess
these tasl<s,r 'cgzrlcllcsos[ 'age, gencler;t ir.nei r.rh isloly, cr.rltr-u'eo,r nzitionniill y.
Dr-eil<r-rrs:inMclo szrl<(1 1)67)a ncl Mosak ancl Di'cil<r-rr(s1 967) aclclectlu ,o otltc'r
taslcso l'life to this list: gctting zrlongr ,r,itho urselves( sel{-zrcccptitnce)a,n cl clc-
vcloping our spiritnzrl cliurensiorr( inclucling valnes, r'ncaning, lif'e goals, ar-rci
oLu-r-cl;iti<tnshirpv itlr thc lrniverse,( )r'coslrros).'fhesr:l il'c tasl<sz ll-cs () lunclzr-
i'r'rcntatlo Irtrnrzrrl.irv ing that clyslr-rnctionir r any onc oI them is ol'tcn iin incli-
calol ol' :i psvcl'iologic:icl lisolclcr('A nreliczrnP sychiatric Associzttiorr2, 000).
Birth0 rdera ndS iblingR elationships
'l'he Aclleliau zipprozrchi s uniciuc in givir-rgs peciai erttcntion to thc rclation-
slrips bet.r,i,ccsrrib lings ancl the psychologicai biltlr lrosil"iolri r.ro ne's l'arlily.
Acllel iclenti{iecll ive psychological positions: olclesl,s econclo I only tr.r,or, 'nicl-
cllc,1 ,o1-111-gasntc,l o nl1,.( Actuzrlb irtlr olclcl itsell is less ir.r-r1-rortaLnlrta rrt hc in-
cliviclrral'sin toplelation rif lris or-hcr plnce in the I'amil1,.)IJ eciu-rsAc cllelians
riier,rn' rosI hunrarr prriblcnrs as social ilr r-urtrrret,h cv er.nplr:rsiz.rec lationslrips
r,r,tih i n the l'arlily.
Acller'(19.58o) bscnrcsL harrl rrzrnyp eople r,i,oucleur ,hy childlen in llrc s:rrlc
Ian-rilyo ltc'n cliifcl so u'icleh,,z inclh e pointecl otrt that it is a fa llzrcvt o assLulc
theit chilc[r-eror f tl-res ar-r-rle': rr-r-rialv r c firr-n-rccin[ thc szrntce nvirolrr-r-icnLA. ]-
thciuglrs iblings.sharca spectsi n corlmor.r ilr tlrc Iarlily conslellartitl'r,t he psy-
clrological situation of each clrilcl is clilIerent l'r'om tlrat ol'thc othcrs cluc [o
birlh orcler.T he I'ollor.rrir.crglc scriptior-ro f thc ir"rllr-rer-rocfc bilth orclcr is b:rsccl
c-lnA rrsbzrchcar nclAr-rsbachcr'(1964D), lcil<rrrs( 1953), erncAl cllcr'(1958).
1. The olr'leslc ltild gcncrtrlly reccivcs a goocl cleerol l erttcr-ttionn, ncl clr-rlingt he
tinre she is the r-inlyc hilcl, she is typically somcu'hal slloilccl;rs thc centel ol
atlentior.r.S he tenclst o be cleper-rclabuien cl halcl u'orking zrncls tr-ivcst o l<cep
aheerclW. hen eln c\.\/b lothel or sister al'r'irreso n the scene, lror.r,,erresrl'',r ef ir-rc{s
helself cx.rstecfli 'orn her: l'en,clredp osition. Slre is no longer nniclue or speci;rl.
She ntay r"eaclilyb elieve that thc ne\\/colrer'(ol intrucler:)r ,i'illr ob her ol tl-rc
Iove to rvhicl-rs hc is ziccustonrecl.
2. The secctnccl ltikl is in zrc lil'ferer-rpt osition. Fronr the tin.res he is borr-r,s l're
shzrrcst he attention r,i,ithn nother-c hild. Thc typical seconclc l'rilclb ehaves ris il
slre rvere in a r'acca ncl is generallv r-rndelf uil stezim zrta ll tin'rer;.l t is as ll-rolrgl-i
this second chilcl r.r,erein training to sLlrpasst he older brothel ol sistcr. This
corlpetitive struggle betr,r,eenth e hlst tr'i,oc hilclren in{hrencc's1 he lzitel colu'se
ol thcir lirres.T l-rey oLrngef chilci develops zrl <nacl<1 or"f rncling or-rtt l'rc elcler
chiid'-sr ,r'eaks pots arrd ploceeds to r.rrinp raise fi'om both parents and tcachers
I 00 ; PARTTW 0 THE0RIAENSDT ECHNI00UFEC S0 UNSEtING
by achieving sLrccessesw here the older sibling has failed. If one is talented in
a given area, the other strirres for recognition by deveioping other abilities.
The second-born is often opposite to the firstborn.
3. The ndddle child often feels squeezed out. This child may become convinced
of the unfairness ol life and feel cheated. This person may assllme a "poor me"
attitude and can become a problem child. f{owever, especially in families char-
acterized by conflict, the middle child may become the switchboard and the
peacemake4 the person who holds things together. If there are four children in
a family, the second child will often I'eell ike a n-riddle child and the third will be
more easygoing, more social, and may align urith the firstborn.
4. Theyoungest chiLd is always the baby of the family and tends to be the
most pampered one. He has :r special role to playl for all the other children
;ire ahead of hir-n. Youngest children tend to go their own wi.ry.T hey often de-
i,elop in ways no others in the fzrmily have thought about.
5. 'lhe only childhas a problem ol her own. Although she shares some of the
characteristics of the oldest child (nan-rely,h igh achievement drive), she may
not learn to share or cooperate with other children. She will learn to deal with
adr-rltsr a,ell,a s they mzrkeu p her original fan-rilialw orld. Often, tlre oniy child
is parmpered by her parents and mzry becorle clependently tied to one or both
of them. She may \^/antt o have center stage all of the time, and if her positior-r
is charllenged,s he will feel it is unfarir.
Birth order ancl the interpletation of one's position in the farnily have a
great dezrl to do wilh how ac{lrltsi nteract in tl-rew orld. Individuals accluire er
certain style of reluting to others in childhoocl and fonn a definite pictr-rreo f
themselves that they carly into their adult inLeractions.I n Adlerian therapy,
working v,,ith l'ar-nilyd ynamics, especially relationships among siblings, as-
sllmes a l<eyr ole. Although it is important to ervoids tereotyping inclividr-rzrlsit,
does help to see horv certain personality trends that began in chilclhood as a
restrlt of siblins liverlrv inlluence indirridr-ralsth roushouI life.
..] THET HFRAPEUPTRIOCC ESS
TherapeuticG oals
Adleriar-rc ounseling l-estso n a collerborzrtivez rrrangemcnt between the client
erndt he colrnselor. In general, the therapeutic process includes forming a rela-
tionship based on mutual r-especta nd iclentifyir-rg,e xploring, ancl disclosir-rg
rnislaken gc>cLlasn d ftLultl, cLsstuttptionsw ithin the person's style of living. This
is followecl by a reecir-rcationo f the client toward the useful side of life. The
main airn of therapy is lo cievelopt he client's sense of belonging and to assist
ir-rt he adoption of behzrviorsz rndp rocessesc haracterizecl by community feel-
ing zrnd social interest. This is accon'rplishedb y increaising the ciier-rt'ss elf-
awafeness ancl challenging zrnd modif,iing his or her fundarnental premises,
iife goals, erndb arsicc oncepts (Dreikurs, 1967, 1997).
CHAPTE5R ADLERIANT HERAPY 101
Adleriar-rsd o not see clients as being "sick" and in need of being "cured."
Instead, they rziewc lients as discouraged. Symptoms are attempted solutions.
The goal is to reeducate clients so that they can live in society as equals, botl-r
giving to society and receiving frorn others (Mosal<, 2000). Therefore, the
counseling process focuses on prorziding information, teaching, guiding, ancl
offering encouragement to discouraged clients. Encouragement is the nlost
porverful method available for changing a person's beliefs. It helps clients
build self-confidencea nd stimulates collrage. Conrage is the u,illingness to act
even v,ltertf'ecLrfuinl u,ays that are consistent r,r'iths ocial interest. Fear and
coLrrageg o har-rdi n hancl; witl-rout {ear, there ra,ould be no need for colrrage.
The loss of courage, or discouragement, results in mistaken and dysftlnctional
behavior. Discouraged people do not act in line rvith social itrterest on the ttse-
ful side of life.
Adlerian counselors educate clients in nerl' rvays of lool<ing at themsehres,
others, and life. Thror-rght he process of pr:oviding clier-rtsr .l,itha nerv "cogni-
tive map," a furndamental understancling of the plrrpose of their behavior,
connselors assist them in changing their per"ceptior-tsM. osak (2000) lists tl-rese
goals for the edr,rcational process of therapv:
m Fostering social interest
ur Helping ciients overcome feelings of cliscor-rragernenat nd inf'eriority
ru Modifying clients'views and goals-that is, cbar-rgingt heir lifestyle
,* Changing faulty rnotivation
x Assisting clients to feel a senseo f eqr-ralityr vith others
w Helping people to become contributing rnembers of society
TherapistF'su nctioann dR ole
Acllerian counselors reahz,et hat clients can become discouraged and functiou
ineffectively becar-rseo f mistaken beliefs, faulty valnes, and goals in the nse-
less side of life. They operate on the assumption that ciients ra,ill ieel ancl be-
have better if they discover and correct their basic mistakes. Therapists tend
to look for major mistal<esi n thinking and valuing such as rnistrr-rst,s elfisl-r-
ness, Llnrealistic ambitions, and lack of confidence.
A major function of the therapist is to make a comprehensirre assessment
of the clients ftinctioning. Therapists gather information by means of a ques-
tionnaire on the client's fantily constellation, rvhich includes parents, siblings,
and others living in the home. When summarized and interpreted, this qr-res-
tionnaire gives a picture of the individr-ral's early social rvorld. From this infor-
mation the therapist is able to get a perspective on the client's major areas of
success and failure and on the criticai influeirces that have had a bearing on
the role the client has decided to assume in the rvor-ld.
The counselor also uses eaily recollectiorts as a diagnostic tool. These rec-
ollections are of single incidents fiom childhood that we are able to reexperi-
ence. They reflect ollr cllrrenl convictions, erraluations, attitudes, and biases
102 ! PARTTW 0 THE0RIEASN DT ECHNI0U0EFSC 0UNSEING
(Griffith & Powers,1 984).T hesem emoriesp rovide a brief picture of how we
seeo urselvesa nd others and what we anticipate for our futlrre. After these
early recollectionsa re summarized and interpreted, the therapist identifies
some of the major successeas nd mistakesi n the client'sl ife. The aim is to
provide a point of departure for the therapeuticv enture. This processi s called
a lifestylea ssessmentW, hen this processi s completed,t he therapist and the
client have targets for therapy.
Adleriansa ssllmea nonpathologicalp erspectivea nd thus do not label
clientsb y their diagnosesI.n steado f using a medicalm odel to understand
their clients, Adleriansa ssumea broader perspectiveb asedo n a growth
model. One way of looking at the role of Adlerian therapistsi s that they assist
clients in better understanding,c hallenging,a nd changingt heir life story.
"When individualsd evelopa life story that they find limiting and problem sat-
urated, the goal is to free them from that story in favor of a preferred and
eqr.rallyv iable alternative story" (Disque & Bitter; 1998,p . 434).
ClientsE xperiencineT herapy
How do clients maintain their lifestyle, and why do they resist changing it? A
person's style of living serves the individual by staying stable and constant. In
other r.r'ords,i t is predictable. It is, horvever,a lso resistant to change through-
out most of one's life. Generally, people fail to change because they do not rec-
ogniz.et he errors in their thinking or the pllrposes of their behaviors, do not
know what to do differently, and are fearful of leaving old patterns for new
and unpredictzrble olltcomes. Thus, even though their ways of thinking and
behaving are not successful, they tend to cling to the familiar patterr-rs
(Sweeney, l99B). Clier-rtsi n Adlerian cor-rnselingf ocus their work on desired
oLltcomes and Iifestyle, which will provide a bl,reprint lbr their actions.
In therapy, clients explore what Adlerians call private logic, the concepts
abor-rts el[, others, and lite that constitute the philosophy on which an individ-
r-ral'sli festyle is based. Clients'problems arise because the conclusions based
on their private logic ofter-rd o not confbrm to the requirements of social liv-
ing. The core of the therapy experience consists of clients' discovering the pur-
poses of'behavior or symptoms and the basic mistakes associated with their
coping. Learning hor,r,t o correct far,rltya ssumptions and conclusions is cen-
tral to therapy.
To provide a concrete example, think of a chronically depressed middle-
aged man who begins therapy. After a lifestyle assessmenti s completed, these
basic mistakes are identified:
r'* He has convinced himself that nobody could really care about hin'r.
rx He rejects people before they have a chance to reject him.
u He is harshly critical of himself, expecting perfection.
m He has expectations that things will rarely work out rvell.
m He br-rrdens hin-rself with guilt becar-rseh e is convinced he
letting everyone down.