Alam, Farhana (2015) 'Glaswasian'? A sociophonetic analysis of Glasgow-Asian accent and

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Alam, Farhana (2015) 'Glaswasian'? A sociophonetic analysis of
Glasgow-Asian accent and identity. PhD thesis.

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Glaswasian?
A Sociophonetic Analysis of
Glasgow-Asian Accent and Identity
Farhana Alam
MLitt English Language
PGCE Secondary English with Drama and Media Studies
BScHons Psychology, English Literature and Sociology
University of Glasgow
College of Arts
School of Critical Studies
Department of English Language
Dissertation submitted to the University of Glasgow in partial fulfilment
of the requirements for the degree of Doctor of Philosophy
5th October 2015
(cid:13)c Farhana Alam 2015
Abstract
British-Asians have often been stereotyped in the media through their cultural and
linguistic practices, and these have been exacerbated by ongoing anti-Islamic interna-
tional media coverage. Such associations may necessarily impact on the identity of
young Pakistani-Muslims living in the West, and by implication, their sociolinguistic
choices. However, no systematic study to my knowledge has attempted to uncover
the role fine-grained phonetic variation might play in indexing such associations. In
addition, Scottish-Pakistanis who are the largest ethnic minority group in Scotland,
have been neglected in prior research on ethnic accents of English. With the increasing
acknowledgement that ethnic varieties may influence mainstream Englishes as well as
contribute to regional and personal identity, Scotland is a prime site for such analy-
sis with its strong sense of national as well as local identity. Moreover, young female
identity in the Muslim context is heightened, and can advance the understanding of
the role of age, gender and religion in language variation.
This study is a sociophonetic analysis of the Glasgow-Asian accent, specifically ex-
amining the speech of British-born adolescent Pakistani girls, aged 16-18. It uses both
linguistic ethnographic and variationist methods with auditory and acoustic phonetics
to ascertain how social identity and ethnicity are reflected in specific accent features of
their spoken English. From long-term fieldwork in a Glasgow high school, results show
that distinct Communities of Practice (CofPs) emerge in the girls according to their so-
cial practices. The consonantal variable /t/, and six unchecked monophthongal vowels
/i, e, a, O,o, 0/wereexaminedrevealingfine-graineddifferencesinrealisationaccording
to CofP membership. CofP effects were found: for /t/ for Tongue Shape gesture and
Centre of Gravity (CoG), and for vowels in interaction effects with adjacent phonetic
environment for FLEECE height (F1) and BOOT front-backness (F2). Findings reveal
within-ethnic and cross-ethnic differences across the variables. The girls use a system
of accent variation in subtle ways to simultaneously denote ethnicity, and personal,
regional and social identity. This reflects hybridity at a fine phonetic level, similar to
that of ‘Brasian’ (Harris 2006), but here embodied in the concept of ‘Glaswasian’.
Contents
Contents i
List of Tables viii
List of Figures x
List of Extracts xii
Acknowledgement xiii
Dedication xiv
Author’s Declaration xv
Abbreviations xvi
I Context, Method and Location 1
1 Introduction 2
1.1 Overview . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2
1.2 Motivation and Context . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3
1.3 Overall Research Questions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 7
1.4 Structure of the Thesis . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8
2 Theoretical Background 9
2.1 Overview . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 9
2.2 ‘Waves’ in Sociolinguistic Research . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 9
2.2.1 First Wave: The ‘Big’ Picture . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 10
2.2.2 Second Wave: The ‘Local’ Picture . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 10
2.2.3 Third Wave: The ‘Stylistic’ Picture . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 11
2.3 Age and Adolescence . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 11
2.4 Gender . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 13
2.5 Social Networks . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 15
2.6 Style . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 16
i
2.6.1 Stance . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 17
2.6.2 Indexicality . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 18
2.7 Communities of Practice (CofP) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 18
2.7.1 What is a Community of Practice? . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 18
2.7.2 Eckert (1989, 2000): Jocks and Burnouts . . . . . . . . . . . . . 19
2.7.3 Further CofP Studies on Adolescents . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 21
2.8 Identity . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 22
2.9 Ethnicity . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 23
2.9.1 What is ethnicity? . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 23
2.9.2 Early Work: African American English (AAVE) . . . . . . . . . 25
2.9.3 British Black English . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 26
2.9.4 Language Crossing . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 27
2.9.5 Regional Linguistic Variation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 29
2.9.6 Multicultural Urban Varieties . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 30
2.9.7 Multicultural British English . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 31
2.10 Summary . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 32
3 British-Asians: Context and Language 34
3.1 Overview . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 34
3.2 The British South Asian Community . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 34
3.2.1 Introduction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 34
3.2.2 Historical and Sociological Background . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 35
3.3 The British Pakistani Muslim Community . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 37
3.3.1 Origins . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 37
3.3.2 Heterogeneity . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 37
3.3.3 Sectarianism . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 37
3.3.4 Unity . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 38
3.3.5 First Generation Women . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 38
3.4 Younger British-Born Generations . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 41
3.4.1 Overview . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 41
3.4.2 Trapped between Cultures? . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 41
3.4.3 Hybrid Identities? . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 42
3.4.4 Young Pakistani Women in the UK . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 44
3.4.5 Religion and Culture . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 47
3.4.6 Discrimination and Islamophobia . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 47
3.4.7 Summary . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 49
3.5 Research on British-Asian Language . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 50
3.5.1 Introduction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 50
3.5.2 Urdu, Punjabi and Pakistani-English . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 50
3.5.3 Previous Sociolinguistic Research on British-Asians . . . . . . . 51
3.5.4 Language and Identity: ‘Brasian’ . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 53
3.5.5 The ‘British-Asian’ Accent . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 54
3.5.6 Summary of British Asian Research . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 59
3.6 The Scottish-Asian Context . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 60
3.6.1 Demography . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 60
3.6.2 Early History of Scottish Asians . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 60
3.6.3 Scottish Asian Society . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 61
3.6.4 The Glasgow-Pakistani Community . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 62
3.6.5 Scottish-English . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 63
3.6.6 A First Look at ‘Glaswasian’ . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 64
3.7 Summary . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 66
4 General Methodology 67
4.1 Overview . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 67
4.2 Methodological Approaches . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 67
4.2.1 Variationist Sociolinguistics . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 67
4.2.2 Linguistic Ethnography . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 68
4.2.3 Auditory and Acoustic Phonetics . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 68
4.3 Location and Ethics . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 68
4.3.1 Rationale . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 68
4.3.2 Access . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 69
4.3.3 Riverburn High School, Glasgow . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 69
4.4 Data Collection . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 69
4.4.1 Ethnographic Method . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 70
4.4.2 Speech Recordings . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 71
4.4.3 The Final Data Set . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 71
4.5 Data Management . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 72
4.5.1 Social Data: Microsoft Access Database . . . . . . . . . . . . . 72
4.5.2 Speech Data: Praat Transcription and Annotation . . . . . . . . 72
4.5.3 Storage and Searching of Speech Data: LaBB-CAT . . . . . . . 73
4.6 Data Analysis . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 74
4.6.1 Qualitative Analysis . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 74
4.6.2 Variationist Analysis . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 75
4.6.3 Phonetic Variables . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 75
4.6.4 Statistical Testing: Mixed Effects Models . . . . . . . . . . . . . 76
4.7 Summary . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 78
II Social and Linguistic Results 79
5 The Ethnography at Riverburn High School 80
5.1 Introduction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 80
5.2 Riverburn High School . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 80
5.3 Considerations for Research . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 81
5.3.1 Why Girls? . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 81
5.3.2 Age of Informants . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 82
5.3.3 My Identity . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 82
5.3.4 Changes Across the Ethnography . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 82
5.4 Ethnography: The Early Days . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 83
5.4.1 Setting the Scene . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 83
5.4.2 First Encounters . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 84
5.4.3 Fieldnotes and Recordings . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 85
5.5 Inter-Ethnic Divisions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 86
5.5.1 Prejudice and Racism? . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 86
5.5.2 Younger Students . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 88
5.5.3 Student-Teacher Relations . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 89
5.6 Fitting In . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 89
5.6.1 ‘Who are you?’ . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 89
5.6.2 ‘You’re part of our crew’ . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 90
5.6.3 Perceptions versus Reality . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 90
5.6.4 Awkward and Risky Moments . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 91
5.7 Social Spaces at Riverburn High . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 92
5.7.1 The ‘Social Area’ and School Library . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 93
5.7.2 Lunch Hangouts . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 93
5.7.3 The ‘Refugee Corridor’ . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 95
5.7.4 ‘Naughty’ Areas . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 96
5.8 Social Events and Social Practices . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 97
5.8.1 Dance Events . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 97
5.8.2 The S6 Prom . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 98
5.9 Intra-ethnic Divisions Amongst Asians . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 99
5.9.1 Asian Girls . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 99
5.9.2 Asian Boys . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 102
5.9.3 Generational Divisions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 105
5.10 Asian Language . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 106
5.11 Communities of Practice at Riverburn High . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 107
5.11.1 Rationale . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 107
5.11.2 Asian CofPs . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 108
5.11.3 Conservatives . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 112
5.11.4 Religionistas . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 113
5.11.5 Moderns . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 115
5.11.6 Messabouts . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 117
5.11.7 Shifters . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 121
5.11.8 Wannabes . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 124
5.12 Summary . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 126
6 Realisation of /t/ 128
6.1 Overview . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 128
6.2 Research Question for /t/ . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 128
6.3 Background on Stops . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 128
6.4 Methodology . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 131
6.4.1 Methods of Phonetic Analysis for /t/ . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 131
6.4.2 Data Sample . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 133
6.4.3 Data Preparation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 134
6.4.4 Excluded Tokens . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 134
6.4.5 Coding Adjacent Phonetic Context . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 135
6.4.6 Statistical Method: Mixed Effects Models . . . . . . . . . . . . 136
6.4.7 Auditory Analysis: Tongue Place and Shape . . . . . . . . . . . 137
6.4.8 Acoustic Analysis: Spectral Moments . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 138
6.5 Auditory Results for /t/ . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 138
6.5.1 Tongue Place . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 139
6.5.2 Tongue Shape . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 142
6.5.3 Summary of Auditory Results . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 144
6.6 Acoustic Results . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 144
6.6.1 Background: Spectral Moments . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 144
6.6.2 Correlations of the Four Spectral Moments . . . . . . . . . . . . 148
6.6.3 Centre of Gravity (CoG): Spectral Moment 1 . . . . . . . . . . 148
6.6.4 Standard Deviation: Spectral Moment 2 . . . . . . . . . . . . . 153
6.6.5 Summary of Acoustic Results . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 156
6.7 Discussion . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 156
6.7.1 Summary of Results for Realisation of /t/ . . . . . . . . . . . . 156
6.7.2 Social Constraints: Community of Practice . . . . . . . . . . . . 157
6.7.3 The Realisation of /t/ in Glaswasian . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 159
6.7.4 Future Directions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 160
7 Vowels in Glasgow-Asian 162
7.1 Overview . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 162
7.2 Research Questions for Vowels . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 162
7.3 Vowels in Sociolinguistic Research . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 163
7.4 Vowel Production and Classification . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 163
7.5 Relevant Varieties for Glasgow-Asian . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 164
7.5.1 Scottish-English . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 165
7.5.2 Punjabi . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 166
7.5.3 Urdu . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 166
7.5.4 Pakistani-English . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 166
7.5.5 British-Asian English . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 167
7.5.6 Summary of Relevant Varieties . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 168
7.6 Methodology . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 168
7.6.1 Speaker Sample . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 168
7.6.2 Vowel Sample . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 169
7.6.3 LaBB-CAT, HTK-Training and CELEX . . . . . . . . . . . . . 174
7.6.4 Vowel Searches using LaBB-CAT . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 175
7.6.5 Vowel Formant Extraction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 175
7.6.6 Data Reduction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 176
7.6.7 Vowel Normalisation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 178
7.6.8 Summary Statistics . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 178
7.6.9 Linear Mixed Effects Models (LMEMs) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 178
7.6.10 Methods of Vowel Analysis . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 179
7.7 Results . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 181
7.7.1 Overview . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 181
7.7.2 General Descriptive and Statistical Data . . . . . . . . . . . . . 181
7.7.3 Analysis A: Comparing Vowels Across CofPs . . . . . . . . . . . 183
7.7.4 Analysis B: Within CofP Across Vowels . . . . . . . . . . . . . 197
7.7.5 AnalysisC:AcrossEthnicityAsian/Non-AsianCorpusComparison201
7.8 Discussion . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 206
7.8.1 Summary . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 206
7.8.2 Within Ethnicity: Community of Practice and Vowel Realisation 207
7.8.3 Across Ethnicity: Asian and Non-Asian Vowels in Glasgow . . . 210
7.8.4 Conclusion . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 211
III Conclusions 212
8 Discussion 213
8.1 Overview . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 213
8.2 Summary of the Study . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 213
8.3 Internal Factors: Adjacent Phonetic Context . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 214
8.4 Significant Phonetic Variables for CofP . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 215
8.4.1 Realisation of /t/: Tongue Shape and CoG . . . . . . . . . . . . 215
8.4.2 Vowels: /i, 0/ . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 215
8.5 Within Ethnicity: CofP and Phonetic Variation . . . . . . . . . . . . . 216
8.5.1 Conservatives . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 216
8.5.2 Religionistas . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 218
8.5.3 Moderns . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 218
8.5.4 Shifters . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 219
8.5.5 Messabouts . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 220
8.5.6 Wannabes . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 221
8.5.7 Further Discussion . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 221
8.6 Discussion Across Ethnicity in Glasgow . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 223
8.7 Explanations For Variation other than CofP . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 224
8.7.1 Role of Bilingualism . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 224
8.7.2 Role of Ethnicity and Social Class . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 225
8.7.3 Other Aspects of Phonetic Quality . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 225
8.8 Generational Change . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 226
8.9 Glasgow-Asian or ‘Glaswasian’? . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 226
8.10 Summary . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 228
9 Conclusion 229
9.1 Synopsis of Thesis . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 229
9.2 Future Research Directions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 229
9.2.1 Using the Glaswasian Corpus . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 230
9.2.2 Phonetic Work . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 231
9.2.3 Stylistic Variation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 231
9.2.4 Language Acquisition and Change . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 231
9.2.5 British-Asian English and Ethnic Minority Research . . . . . . . 232
9.2.6 Other Social Groups and Contexts . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 232
9.3 Relevance of the Study . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 233
Appendices 235
A Stressed Syllable Initial /t Words 236
B FLEECE words and frequency 240
C FACE words and frequency 245
D CAT words and frequency 251
E COT words and frequency 257
F GOAT words and frequency 263
G BOOT words and frequency 268
H Crosstabs: Vowel, Preceding Context and Following Context 273
I Crosstabs: Vowel, Preceding Context, Following Context and CofP 275
Bibliography 279