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Air and Gas Drilling Manual: Applications for Oil, Gas, Geothermal Fluid Recovery Wells, Specialized Construction Boreholes, and the History and Advent of the Directional DTH PDF

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Air and Gas Drilling Manual Air and Gas Drilling Manual Applications for Oil, Gas, Geothermal Fluid Recovery Wells, Specialized Construction Boreholes, and the History and Advent of the Directional DTH Fourth Edition William C. Lyons James H. Stanley Francisco J. Sinisterra Tom Weller GulfProfessionalPublishingisanimprintofElsevier 50HampshireStreet,5thFloor,Cambridge,MA02139,UnitedStates TheBoulevard,LangfordLane,Kidlington,Oxford,OX51GB,UnitedKingdom ©2021ElsevierInc.Allrightsreserved. Nopartofthispublicationmaybereproducedortransmittedinanyformorbyanymeans,electronicor mechanical,includingphotocopying,recording,oranyinformationstorageandretrievalsystem,without permissioninwritingfromthepublisher.Detailsonhowtoseekpermission,furtherinformationaboutthe Publisher’spermissionspoliciesandourarrangementswithorganizationssuchastheCopyrightClearance CenterandtheCopyrightLicensingAgency,canbefoundatourwebsite:www.elsevier.com/permissions. ThisbookandtheindividualcontributionscontainedinitareprotectedundercopyrightbythePublisher (otherthanasmaybenotedherein). Notices Knowledgeandbestpracticeinthisfieldareconstantlychanging.Asnewresearchandexperiencebroaden ourunderstanding,changesinresearchmethods,professionalpractices,ormedicaltreatmentmaybecome necessary. Practitionersandresearchersmustalwaysrelyontheirownexperienceandknowledgeinevaluatingand usinganyinformation,methods,compounds,orexperimentsdescribedherein.Inusingsuchinformationor methodstheyshouldbemindfuloftheirownsafetyandthesafetyofothers,includingpartiesforwhomthey haveaprofessionalresponsibility. Tothefullestextentofthelaw,neitherthePublishernortheauthors,contributors,oreditors,assumeany liabilityforanyinjuryand/ordamagetopersonsorpropertyasamatterofproductsliability,negligenceor otherwise,orfromanyuseoroperationofanymethods,products,instructions,orideascontainedinthe materialherein. LibraryofCongressCataloging-in-PublicationData AcatalogrecordforthisbookisavailablefromtheLibraryofCongress BritishLibraryCataloguing-in-PublicationData AcataloguerecordforthisbookisavailablefromtheBritishLibrary ISBN:978-0-12-815792-3 ForinformationonallGulfProfessionalpublications visitourwebsiteathttps://www.elsevier.com/books-and-journals Publisher:JoeHayton SeniorAcquisitionsEditor:KatieHammon EditorialProjectManager:MonaZahir ProductionProjectManager:PremKumarKaliamoorthi CoverDesigner:GregHarris TypesetbySPiGlobal,India Preface ThisisthefourtheditionoftheAirandGasDrillingManual.Thefirsteditionof this book was published in 1984 by the former Gulf Publishing Company of Houston, Texas. That initial edition was written primarily for the oil and gas recovery drilling industry. This first edition enjoyed moderate success and wassoldoutofitsinitialprintingbythelate1980s.Althoughitwasnotknown at the time, the success of this first book and its content in the later part of the 1980s and early 1990s,was in reality, ananomaly since thoseyearsweresome oftheworsteverexperienceduptotimebythepetroleumindustryintheUnited States. In the early 1990s, the North American petroleum engineers and their uniqueinnovativedrillingpersonnelhadbeguntoconsiderthepotentialadvan- tagesofdrillingandcompletingwellswithdrillingfluidpressureslowerthanfor- mation pore pressures. The birth of underbalanced drilling and completion techniques was underway. At about this same time, the book’s authors began considering a new second edition ofthe book. Inthelate1990sGulfPublishingCompanybeganconcentratingonitsinter- national energy information businesses, e.g., World Oil, Petroleum Economist, and Hydrocarbon Processing, and began losing interest its long list of profes- sionalbooktitles,e.g.,AirandGasDrillingManual.Thisledtheauthorstoseek anewpublisherforasecondedition.Aftergettingareleaseofthebooktitlefrom thenewownersofGulfPublishingCompany,theauthorsbegansearchingfora newpublishingcompany.Theauthorsenvisionedthenewsecondeditionwould initiateinvestigationsintounderbalanceddrillingand completionsengineering planningandoperations.Also,thisneweditionwouldexpanditsindustrialout- looktoincludegeothermaldrillingandcompletions,andanearlylookintodeep construction operations utilizing direct circulation and reverse circulation air hammer technologies. This second edition was published 2001 under a McGraw-Hill Company professional title. Duringthe2000s,technologiesforbothdirectcirculationandreversecircu- lationofairandgasdrillingequipmentandoperationshadgreatlyimprovedin the intervening years. This was particularly the case in the Appalachian region wherepioneerslikeBrooksJavins,RubenGraham,RudyLyon,AngeloSpedale, RinerBeccu,TomDonovan,GlennWright,JayGodfrey,RayShelor,RudyFlores, Jeff White, Shantanu Swadi, Tom Weller, and many others who pushed the designs of the DTH and their applications. This was particularly the situation with the new discoveries of producible oil and gas from horizontally drilled andfrackedwellsintheUticaandMarcellusshales.TheseAppalachiandiscov- eriespromptedinterestbylocaldrillingequipmentsuppliersandcontractorsto improvetheverticaldrillingtimesandcostefficiencybyincorporatingdownhole air hammers (DTHs) in the BHAs. Along with those advances were the many xi xii Preface greatstridesforwardinreversecirculationdrillingequipmentformining,envi- ronmental, constructionapplicationsbyArtHolte and histeamin Oregon,and international manufactures specializing in this type of large diameter shallow depth drilling equipment. Through the 2000s, Elsevier had acquired access for rights to publish professional books from the old Gulf Publishing Company. The new third edition of the Air and Gas Drilling Manual was published by Elsevierin 2009. Thenewfourtheditionhaspulledtogetherthenewestinnovationsforboth the direct circulation and the reverse circulation technologies over that past decade,andcondensedtheimportantengineeringcalculationsandapplications forbothoftheseimportantdrillingtechnologies.Themajorinnovationindirect circulation has been the development of the ability to drill long reach and mediumreachdirectionaldrillingwithBHAscomposedofPDMsrotatingDTHs. InreversecirculationArtHolteandhisteaminOregondevelopedtheabilityto drilllargediameterboreholesandgroutthemasthedrillingequipmentiswith- drawn from the borehole. These are spectacular inventions for the industries theyserve.Thisfourthedition,asinthethirdedition,makesuseoftheMathcad mathematicalmodeling.Theseexamplesolutionsshowstep-by-stepcalculations in familiar mathematics that can be duplicated in any of the engineering pro- gramminglanguages,FORTRAN,C+,MatLab,etc.Mathcadisanimportanttool forteachingengineersandtechniciansthelogicorderlysolutionsandthevalue of the calculations for planning. TheauthorswouldliketothankthestaffatElsevierfortheirforbearanceand great patience during the creation of this new fourth edition. We would partic- ularly like to thank Katie Hammon, the Elsevier Acquisitions Editor who took anotherchanceonustoproduceafourtheditiononthissubject.Wewouldalso like to thank our Editorial Project Managers Hillary Carr and Mona Zahir for struggling through our delays. The really valuable assistance came from our figure drawing artists and the proof readers that had to endure many drafts. Our special thanks go out to the artists Trish Richardson and Ann Gardner who gave us near instant reproductions from our hand sketches. The proof readersenduredaspecialmessofmissing(to’s,the’s,in’s,a’s)astheydealtwith our late night drafts by theauthors. So our thanksgo out to our proofreaders, GlennaWoody,GracePeterson,and AnnGardner whohad todeal withnearly three years of endlessrevisions. William C.Lyons JamesH. Stanley Francisco J. Sinisterra Tom Weller Acknowledgments “Iwouldliketothankthefollowingpeopleforsharingtheirexpertise:ArtHolte, FrankA.Seidel,ReubenL.Graham,BoyunGuo,RudyFlores,PatSullivan,and Shane Sayler.” xiii CHAPTER 1 Introduction, Calculation Programming, and Unit Systems 1.1 INTRODUCTION There is a wide variety of air and gas drilling operations being used by many diverseindustriesinagreatvariationoflocationsaroundtheworld.Thesevary from the air- or gas-assisted drilling of very shallow subsurface boreholes for large and small construction projects to the drilling of extremely deep vertical to horizontal boreholes used for the extraction of important natural resources (e.g., fresh water resources, geothermal fluids with dissolved minerals in live steam,naturalgas,andcrudeoils).Bothindustryandgovernmententitiesspon- sortheseoperations.Fromtheinceptionoftherockandsoildrillingtechnologies forperceivedneedsinindustries,theindividualinventorswithinthesemarkets have been dedicated to innovations that would make these drilling operations safer,reliable,andcost-effective.Suchinnovationsarefollowedbyactivedevel- opmentofnearlyallnewideasandultimatelythecommercialapplicationwithin thevarious industries. Deepholedrillingairandgastechnologiesusedfordiscoveryandrecoveryof crudeoil,naturalgas,andgeothermalfluidshaveinthepastbeenlimitedtouse in mature sedimentary basins. Mature sedimentary basins are older basins that havecompetentsubsurfacerockformations,arewellcementedwithnaturalmin- erals,andhavebeentectonicallyupliftedsuchthatlittleformationwaterremains in near-surface porous and fractured beds. Usually, their geological ages are priortoabout65millionyears.Modernairandgasdrillingtechnologyandoper- ationsbeganintheUnitedStatesinthe1930s.Itispresentlybeingusedinmany drillingoperationsthroughouttheworld’smanyoilandgasproducinggeologic provinces.Itisimportantatthistimeinthedevelopmentofthistechnologythat thebasicprinciplesofthetechnologybecommunicatedinamannerthatalldril- ling personnel will understand. Innovation in subsurface drilling equipment has been usually initiated by smaller business entities or individual inventors. These innovators are the “tin- kers”intheindustryandtheideasforchangesoftencomefromthefieldhands whooperateandhandlethesetoolsonaday-to-daybasis.Therearemanyexam- ples of these innovations coming from these innovative small business entities over the past seven decades. Examples of such important early innovation are as follows: the top drive rotary system, the downhole compass sub, the bent 1 AirandGasDrillingManual.https://doi.org/10.1016/B978-0-12-815792-3.00001-5 #2021ElsevierInc.Allrightsreserved. 2 CHAPTER 1 Introduction, Calculation Programming, and Unit Systems sub, for direction drilling, the formation coring bit, the downhole positive dis- placementmotor(PDM),thedownholeairhammer,andthereversecirculation drill string. Therefore, this manual will discuss not only the existing important technologiesbutalsosomeofthenewinnovationsthatareenteringthevarious industrymarkets.Itisbelievedthatthiskindofexposuretothenewinnovations taking place in industry will hasten the acceptance and application of these inventionsintothelargerindustrialmarkets.Inessence,thelargermarketswill become“infected”earlierfrom thesuccesses in the smaller markets. Largerdiametershallowandintermediatedepthwellsareoftendrilledwith reversecirculationtechniques.Thesetechniquesandtheirassociatedequipment are easier to manufacture to incorporate any new innovations and test them. Thus, virtually unknown ideas, like reverse circulation drilling, may someday be used in deep well drilling with small diameter drill string BHAs. That will likelynecessitatetheinventionofnewmaterialsandfabricationtechniquesthat have not yet been invented to create the concept of flexible dual wall pipes. Air and gas drilling technologies account for approximately 10% of the world’slandoilandgasdrillingoperations.Itwasasomewhathigherpercentage adecadeorsoago,butoverthatdecade,theoilandgasdrillingindustrywasina recessionanddrillingoperationsarealwaysthefirstbudgetitemtobecutbackin slow market times. With those cut backs comes a slowdown in innovations in existingtechnologies and their associated operations. However, shallow drilling operations for large diameter construction holes, pipeline directional drilling of near horizontal boreholes, and cable lying (not countingaugerborings)utilizecloseto50%airdrillingtechnologieswithcom- pressorpressurized air flow forremoving drill bit cuttings. This manual shows the engineer or engineering technician how to use the included equations in each chapter to create calculation programs that can be usedtopredicttheair(orgas)pressuresatspecificpositionsinsidethedrillstring andintheannulusaroundthedrillstringintheflowloop.Thiswillgiveanaccu- rate estimate of the injection pressure required from the selected compressor package.Foradirectcirculationoperation, theloopcalculation sequencemust beinitiatedwiththeonlyknownpressureintheloop.Thatistheexitpressureat the exit end of the blooey line with the entrained drill bit cuttings (and any injected or formation liquids) being lifted from the bottom of the borehole. If the operation is using a “solid-gas buster” or a device to separate the solids or dustfromthereturnflowfromthebottomoftheborehole,thentheknownpres- surewillbeattheexitofthegasfromthesolid-gasseparator.Forareversecir- culationoperationusingadual-walleddrillstring,theinitiatingpressurewillbe attheexitfromtheblooeylinethatisconnectedtothetopoftheinsidepipeflow space ofthe dual wall drill pipe.Thecalculation will proceedin reverse, down flow space of the inside pipe, through the drill bit nozzles and up the annulus spaceinthedualwalldrillpipetothecompressorinjectionpressure.Hereagain, ifasolid-gasseparatorisbeingused,theinitiationpressureattheseparatorexit will be used, which is also atmospheric. 1.3 Terminology 3 1.2 CALCULATION PROGRAMMING Engineers and drilling supervisory personnel need to make predictive calcula- tions in order to make their drilling operations efficient and cost-effective. The prediction calculations for air and gas drilling technology are complicated and will require the creation of calculation computer programs. There are sophisti- catedairandgasprogramsavailablecommercially.Butinthetraditionofmost engineeringfields,oncethebasicoutlineoftheprogramhasbeenoutlined,we tendtohandthe“careandfeeding”oftheprogramovertothecomputerscience department.TheauthorshavechosentouseMathCadasourprimarytooltocom- municateto thereaders thedetails ofhowair and gasdrillingpredictive calcu- lationsaremade.TheseMathCadsolutionsareverytransparentandarewritten inasequencethatanengineerorengineeringtechnicianwoulddoiftheywereto dothecalculationbyhand.Intheevent,theconsultancyorcompanyrequiresthe use of engineering programming languages like FORTRAN, MATLAB, Pascal, Basic, Visual Basic, Java, C, and C++. The reader can easily copy our sequence into the other programming languages. ThedetailedMathCadsolutionsaregivenintheappendicesandtheresultsare summarizedfromthosecalculationsineachassociatedchaptertext,table,andfig- ure.ThesolutionsarepresentedinbothUSCSunitsandSIunits.Itisassumedthat newcomerstothistechnologywilleventuallymakethechoiceofwhethertousean existingcommercialprogramortodeveloptheirowncompanyinternalprogram. 1.3 TERMINOLOGY Theobjectiveofthisprofessionaltextistofamiliarizethereaderswiththebasic terminologyandoperationalapplicationsofthisnewfieldofairandgasdrilling technology. The use of this technology is limited to land drilling operations. There are three subcategories of this technology: (1) airand gas fluids drilling, (2) aerated fluids drilling, and (3) stable foam fluids drilling. This technology isutilized by industryto fulfilltwo specific drilling objectives. Performancedrilling:Thistypeofdrillingtakesadvantageofthelowannu- lusbottomholepressuresthataccompanytheuseofthistechnology.Lowannu- lusbottomholepressuresusuallyresultinhigherratesofpenetrations.Thistype of drilling operation is applied in the upper portions of a well bore above the potential producing reservoir formation. The specific objective of this type of drillingistodrillmorerapidlythroughtheupperformationsabovethereservoir and to ultimately reduce the cost ofa drilling operation. Underbalanceddrilling:Hereagain,thistypeofdrillingagaintakesadvan- tage of the low annulus bottom hole pressure characteristic of the technology. Underbalanced drilling uses various bottom hole pressure capabilities of air and gas, and aerated and stable foam drilling fluids to drill into potential 4 CHAPTER 1 Introduction, Calculation Programming, and Unit Systems producingreservoirrockformationswithannulusbottomholepressureslower thanthestaticreservoirpressure.Inthismanner,thereservoirfluidsflowtothe wellboreasthedrillbitisadvancedthroughthereservoir.Underbalanceddril- lingoperationsattempttoavoiddamagetothereservoirrockformationsothat the reservoir will produceeffectively through its life. 1.4 UNIT SYSTEMS Modernengineeringpracticescanbetracedbacktotheearly8thcenturyADwith thetraditionofthe“masterbuilder.”Thiswasthetimeofthecreationofthemea- sureknownastheCharlemagnefoot.Fromthe8thcenturyintothe17thcentury, a variety of weights and measures were used throughout the world. It was not untiltheWeightsandMeasuresActof1824thatacompleteBritishImperialSys- tem(BIS)wascodifiedwithintheBritishIsles,BritishCommonwealthcountries, andinsomeoftheformercoloniesoftheBritish.TheUnitedStates(US)actually did not accept the full British Imperial System. The United States made use of some of the major units within the system and some of the older units that had evolved through the years of colonialism before 1824. This evolution of usage within the United States ultimately became the United States Customary System (USCS) units that is still in commonusetoday. Thedevelopmentofsomeofthebasicunitsthatultimatelybecamepartofthe present-day System International d’Unites probably began around the time of Louis XIV of France. This system is known today as simply SI units (or metric units). This system became codified by international treaty in France in 1875. Most unit systems today, including the British Imperial System and the USCS, arereferencedtotheactualexistingweights(mass)andmeasuresoftheSIunits. These reference weights and measures are kept in Paris, France for all nations andotherentitiestoutilize.Since1875,theSIunitshavegainedrapidandwide- spreadusethroughouttheworld.Thissystem ischaracterizedbyitsconsistent setofunitsandsimplicityofuse.TheSIunitsarebasedonmultiplesofdecades orunitsof10s.AllbasicweightsandmeasurementunitswithinSIareinincreas- ingmagnitudesofmultiplesof10,100,1000,etc.Nearlyallotherunitsystemsin useininternationaltradeandcommercearoundtheworldtodaymustberefer- encedagainsttheSIstandardunitsbeforetheyareconsideredlegitimateforlegal matters orfor internationalcommercial trade. 1.4.1 Physical Mechanics Thereareimportantfundamentaldefinitionsofunitsthatmustbeusedtodefine any units system. These are: - Forceistheactionofonebodyonanother,whichwillcauseaccelerationof thesecondbodyunlessactedonbyanequalandoppositeactioncountering the effect of thefirst body.

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