Agronomy and Economy of Black Pepper and Cardamom: The "King” and "Queen” of Spices

381 Pages·2011·3.051 MB·English

by  K.P. Prabhakaran Nair

Agronomy and Economy of Black Pepper and
Cardamom
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Agronomy and Economy of
Black Pepper and Cardamom
The “King” and “Queen” of Spices
K.P. Prabhakaran Nair
Formerly Professor, National Science Foundation, The Royal
Society, Belgium & Senior Fellow, Alexander von Humboldt
Foundation, The Federal Republic of Germany
AMSTERDAM • BOSTON • HEIDELBERG • LONDON • NEW YORK • OXFORD
PARIS • SAN DIEGO • SAN FRANCISCO • SINGAPORE • SYDNEY • TOKYO
Elsevier
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First edition 2011
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Contents
Dedication xi
Preface xiii
1 The Agronomy and Economy of Black Pepper (Piper nigrum L.)—
The “King of Spices” 1
1.1 Introduction 1
1.2 The Pepper Plant—Its Botany and Chemistry 6
1.2.1 Pepper Botany 6
1.2.2 Pepper Chemistry 12
1.3 Pepper Agronomy 15
1.3.1 The Pepper Soils 15
1.3.2 Nutrition of Black Pepper 16
1.3.3 Evolution of Pepper Manuring 17
1.3.4 Response of Pepper to Mineral Nutrients 18
1.4 The Role of the Nutrient Buffer Power Concept in Pepper Nutrition 20
1.4.1 The Buffer Power and Its Effects on Nutrient Availability 21
1.4.2 Basic Concepts 22
1.4.3 Measuring the Nutrient Buffer Power and Its Importance
in Affecting Nutrient Concentration on Root Surfaces 24
1.4.4 Background Information on the Importance of Measuring
Zinc Buffer Power 26
1.4.5 Quantifying the Zinc Buffer Power of Pepper-Growing
Soils 28
1.5 Establishing a Pepper Plantation 30
1.5.1 The Indian Experience 30
1.5.2 The Indonesian Experience 35
1.6 Pepper Pests and Their Control 37
1.7 The Processing of Black Pepper on Farm 46
1.7.1 Sun Drying of Pepper 48
1.7.2 Solar Drying of Pepper 48
1.7.3 Garbling, Cleaning, and Fractionation 49
1.7.4 Packaging and Storing 51
1.8 An Account of Indonesian Pepper Processing 52
1.9 Industrial Processing of Black Pepper 53
1.9.1 White Pepper 56
1.9.2 Cryoground Pepper 58
1.9.3 Pepper Oil and Oleoresin 58
vi Contents
1.10 The Future of the Global Pepper Economy 61
1.10.1 The Supply Side of the Pepper Economy 62
1.10.2 The Demand Side of the Pepper Economy 65
1.10.3 Prices and World Market 66
1.10.4 The Pepper Price Outlook by 2020 67
1.10.5 The Pepper Supply Outlook by 2020 67
1.10.6 The Pepper Demand Outlook by 2020 67
1.10.7 Countrywise Economic Growth Affecting Production
and Consumption 68
1.11 Pepper Economy in India 68
1.11.1 Pepper Production Scenario in India 70
1.11.2 Bush Pepper 72
1.11.3 Economics of Pepper Production in the State of Kerala 73
1.11.4 Marketing 73
1.11.5 Pepper Futures Market 74
1.12 Pepper Pharmacopoeia 76
1.12.1 Anti-inflammatory and Central Nervous System
Depressant Activity of Pepper 77
1.12.2 Effect on Hepatic Enzymes 78
1.12.3 Carcinogenic and Mutagenic Effects of Black Pepper 79
1.12.4 Pepper as an Antioxidant 80
1.12.5 Pepper as an Antimicrobial Agent 81
1.12.6 The Pharmacological Effect of Pepper on Human Health 82
1.12.7 Clinical Applications of Pepper 82
1.12.8 Toxicological Effects 83
1.12.9 The Insecticidal Activity of Pepper 83
1.13 Consumer Products Out of Black Pepper 84
1.14 Value Addition in Pepper 84
1.14.1 Green Pepper-Based Products 85
1.14.2 Black and White Pepper-Based Products 85
1.14.3 Other Ancillary Pepper-Based By-products 87
1.15 Conclusions and a Peep Into Pepper’s Future 88
2 The Agronomy and Economy of Cardamom
(Elettaria cardamomum M.): The “Queen of Spices” 109
2.1 Introduction 109
2.1.1 Historical Background of Cardamom 109
2.1.2 Cardamom Production and Productivity: A Worldview 111
2.2 Cardamom Botany 115
2.2.1 Taxonomy 115
2.2.2 Crop Improvement 127
2.3 Cardamom Chemistry 139
2.3.1 Biosynthesis of Flavor Compounds 141
2.3.2 Industrial Production 143
Contents vii
2.4 The Agronomy of Cardamom 151
2.4.1 Distribution 151
2.4.2 Climate 151
2.4.3 Management Aspects 153
2.4.4 Establishing a Cardamom Plantation 154
2.4.5 Shade Management in Cardamom 170
2.4.6 Cardamom-Based Cropping Systems 178
2.4.7 Cardamom Nutrition 183
2.4.8 Fertilizer Requirements 189
2.5 The Role of “The Nutrient Buffer Power Concept” in
Cardamom Nutrition 195
2.5.1 The “Buffer Power” and Its Effect on Nutrient Availability 195
2.5.2 Measuring the Nutrient Buffer Power and Its Importance
in Affecting Nutrient Concentrations on Root Surfaces 197
2.5.3 Quantifying the Buffer Power of Soils and Testing Its
Effect on Potassium Availability 199
2.5.4 The Importance of Potassium Buffer Power
Determination in Predicting Potassium Availability to
Perennial Crops 199
2.5.5 The Commercial Significance of the Potassium Buffer
Power Determination in Potassium Fertilizer
Management for Perennial Crops 204
2.5.6 Conclusions 205
2.6 Cardamom Pathology 206
2.6.1 Major Diseases 206
2.6.2 Minor Diseases 212
2.6.3 Integrated Management of Viral Diseases in Cardamom 228
2.7 Cardamom Entomology 233
2.7.1 Major Pests 233
2.7.2 Minor Pests 238
2.7.3 Storage Pests 240
2.7.4 Conclusions 241
2.8 Harvesting and Processing of Cardamom 241
2.8.1 Harvesting 241
2.8.2 Curing 244
2.8.3 Moisture Content 248
2.8.4 Grading 248
2.8.5 Bleached and Half-Bleached Cardamom 249
2.8.6 Commercial Cardamom Grades in Sri Lanka 253
2.8.7 Grading and Packing 253
2.8.8 Conclusions 254
2.9 Industrial Processing of Cardamom and Cardamom Products 254
2.9.1 Cardamom Seeds 255
2.9.2 Packaging and Storage of Cardamom Seeds 255
2.9.3 Cardamom Powder 256
viii Contents
2.9.4 Grinding 256
2.9.5 Storage Powder 257
2.9.6 Cardamom Oil 257
2.9.7 Industrial Production of Cardamom Oil 259
2.9.8 Improvement in Flavor Quality of Cardamom Oil 260
2.9.9 Storage of Cardamom Oil 261
2.9.10 Cardamom Oleoresin 261
2.9.11 Solvent Extraction 262
2.9.12 Large Cardamom (Nepal Cardamom) 265
2.9.13 Other Products 266
2.9.14 Conclusions 267
2.10 The Economy of Cardamom Production 267
2.10.1 Emerging Trends in Cardamom Production 268
2.10.2 Export Performance of Cardamom 275
2.10.3 Direction of Indian Export Trade 275
2.10.4 India’s Competitive Position in the International
Cardamom Market 276
2.10.5 Demand and Supply Pattern 277
2.10.6 Model Identification 277
2.10.7 The Forecast 278
2.10.8 Demand 278
2.10.9 Projections of Supply 279
2.10.10 Conclusions 281
2.11 Pharmacological Properties of Cardamom 282
2.11.1 Pharmacological Properties 282
2.11.2 Carminative Action 282
2.11.3 Antimicrobial Activity 283
2.11.4 Anticarcinogenic Activity 283
2.11.5 Anti-Inflammatory Activity 284
2.11.6 Other Pharmacological Studies 285
2.11.7 Toxicity 285
2.11.8 Other Properties 286
2.11.9 Cardamom as a Spice 289
2.11.10 Conclusions 295
2.12 A Peek into the Future of Cardamom 296
2.12.1 Potential Applications 299
2.12.2 Future Outlook 299
2.13 Large Cardamom (Amomum subulatum Roxb.) 302
2.13.1 Habit and Habitat 303
2.13.2 Cultivars 303
2.13.3 Plant Propagation 306
2.13.4 Plant Nutrition 310
2.13.5 Crop Improvement 312
2.13.6 Insect Pest Management 312
2.13.7 Diseases 317
Contents ix
2.13.8 Management of Chirke and Foorkey Diseases 318
2.13.9 Harvesting and Postharvest Technology 319
2.13.10 Natural Convection Dryer 320
2.13.11 Chemical Composition 321
2.13.12 Properties and Uses 323
2.13.13 Conclusions 323
2.14 False Cardamom 324
2.14.1 Elettaria 324
2.15 Specification for Cardamom 330
2.15.1 Requirements 330