Agricultural research at the crossroads: revisited resource-poor farmers and the millennium development goals

348 Pages·2007·6.546 MB·English

by  Bengtsson, Bo

Agricultural Research
at the Crossroads
Revisited Resource-poor Farmers and the
Millennium Development Goals
Bo M I Bengtsson
Prof. Emeritus, Crop Production Science
Swedish University of Agricultural Sciences
Hoor, Sweden
Science Publishers
Enfield (NH) Jersey Plymouth
© 2007 by Taylor & Francis Group, LLC
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© 2007 by Taylor & Francis Group, LLC
Preface
Globally, current discussions of the Millennium Development Goals and
the United Nations reform process aim for real progress by 2015, and
beyond, with a reduction of poverty and malnutrition for millions of
people. This is a necessary target. Considering the political rhetoric in light
of past achievements in agricultural research and development, I still find
reasons for concern. Over four decades, I have been involved in a variety
of activities of agricultural research and development with an international
focus, most recently as a professor in Crop Production Science at the
Swedish University of Agricultural Sciences. I have also gained experience
of development assistance to farmers in the field and from my responsibility
for Swedish support to research in developing countries and international
agricultural research institutions, serving as a member of international
boards and attending numerous international conferences and meetings.
Another point of departure is my childhood and youth on a small tenant
farm in a parish of southern Sweden, a rural setting with a high degree of
tenancy. All these experiences form an interesting background to actual
developments in the field for resource-poor farmers in my own country, in
Ethiopia and in Trinidad and Tobago. By revisiting the same farmers at
several locations in these countries, in total more than 200 farmers, I have
been fortunate to gain first-hand knowledge about their progress and
technical changes in agriculture in the 1960s, 1980 and the early 2000s. This
set of empirical data offers an interesting platform for policy analysis of
agricultural research and development in the context of globalization and
of ways in which global threats and challenges may affect future policy for
actions to actually reach the poor. Finally, this leads to a discussion of
research policy on future agriculture and land use.
It may be easier to concentrate on the global features and trends or to
review or monitor effects of specific development projects over a few
years. We seldom apply a long-term outlook before making the final
assessment whether or not “development” has been positive and reached
the most needy. Certainly, it is more difficult to conduct studies over a
longer time and combine field data with a global perspective. Still, there is
a need for combining empirical field data over longer time periods with
proposals and ideas from political agreements in order to see what
© 2007 by Taylor & Francis Group, LLC
iv
development may look like for resource-poor farmers in reality. Initial
positive changes, as part of a conventional concept of development, may
sometimes turn into declining trends, if the time perspective is long enough.
It is necessary to integrate field data relevant to policy with a global
overview with up-to-date information for synthesis into scenarios and a
vision of how future research and development can best help those who
are most needy and have little access to productive resources. This is also
relevant for science aid, in particular if it is to be increased over the next
few years. The overall task is a huge challenge for policy-makers and the
agricultural research establishment. It is also of concern in teaching
agricultural students to be able to respond to future challenges. This
publication is such an attempt to stimulate discussion on future options of
research policy, suggesting changes of agricultural R&D for societal
development in accordance with the Millennium Development Goals.
I owe a great deal of gratitude to many persons, above all to the farmers
visited in the three countries over the long term of the empirical studies.
Many others have generously assisted me in various ways during field
visits, in stimulating discussions and by reviewing draft texts. Although
space will not allow me to mention all of them, I wish to recognize a few
key persons at critical stages in this exercise, such as Professor Nazeer
Ahmad, Dr Richard Brathwaite and Dr Aldwyn Tangkai of the University
of the West Indies; Ato Mulugeta Amha, Ato Haile Lul and staff members
of the Ethiopian Science and Technology Commission, Ato Tekele Gebre
and Ato Betru Haile of the former Arsi Rural Development Unit in Ethiopia;
Professor Endashaw Bekele, Dr Eng. Shifferaw Taye and Ato Guluma
Fekadu of the Addis Ababa University; Mr Lars Olof Larsson at the
Swedish Development Cooperation Office in Addis Ababa, Professor Sten
Ebbersten of the Swedish University of Agricultural Sciences, MD Leif
Ekman, Uppsala Community Health Centre and Dr Thore Denward, TD
Foradling Ltd. Finally, I wish to express my gratitude to my publisher for
helpful advice and editing, making this book more readable than would
otherwise have been the case.
June 2006 Bo M I Bengtsson
© 2007 by Taylor & Francis Group, LLC
Contents
Preface iii
Global Agriculture and Revisited Resource-poor Farmers 1
Introduction 1
Revisiting Farmers 3
Agricultural Development Towards Modernization 6
Civilization Is Rooted in Agriculture 6
From Agricultural to Industrial Culture 8
Modernization: Progress and Decline 9
Manageable Information 12
Development 13
Towards the Future 17
Process of Adoption of Agricultural Innovations, Changes of
Cultural Practices and Technical Change Among Revisited
Resource-poor Farmers over almost Four Decades 19
Aroid Farmers in Trinidad 19
Trinidad and Tobago 19
Some Features of Aroid Cultivation and Technical Changes 21
Agricultural Extension, Research and Experimentation 26
Some Development Indicators 27
Problem Identification by Farmers and Their Vision for 2015 28
Summary of Highlights 29
Farmers in the Ethiopian Highlands 30
Ethiopia 30
Features of Plant Husbandry and Technical Changes 32
Agricultural Extension, Research and Experimentation 39
Some Development Indicators 40
Problem Identification by Farmers and Their Vision for 2015 41
Summary of Highlights 42
Swedish Farmers under a High Degree of Tenancy 43
Sweden 43
Technical Changes and Adoption of Agricultural Innovations 45
© 2007 by Taylor & Francis Group, LLC
vi
Agricultural Extension, Research and Experimentation 49
Some Development Indicators 50
Problem Identification by Farmers and Their Vision for 2015 51
Summary of Highlights at Gramanstorp 51
Brief Comparative Analysis of Policies for Agricultural
Research and Extension 53
Adoption of Agricultural Innovations 53
Agricultural Extension 57
Agricultural Research and Experimentation 58
Agricultural Policy 62
Global Trends—Threats or Challenges to
Future Food Security and Food Safety 69
The Same Old Alarm Bells? 69
Poverty 70
Rate of Population Growth 72
The HIV/AIDS Epidemic and Emerging Diseases 74
Biological Diversity 76
Losses of Biodiversity Related to Agriculture, Fishery and
Forestry 77
Access to Genetic Resources for Food and Agriculture 79
Maintenance of Plant Genetic Resources 80
From Free Access and Exchange to Political Bureaucracy 82
Towards an End of Cheap Fossil Energy 84
Climate Change and Agriculture 86
Water Scarcity and Water Pollution 90
Urbanization and Waste Mountains 91
Towards Declining Confidence in Food Safety? 94
The BSE Crisis Led to Panic: What Next? 94
Danger from Direct and Indirect Food Contamination by
Synthetic Chemicals 96
Chemicalization of Food—and Life? 97
Obesity—a Growing Problem 101
Migration—a Search for a Better Life 102
Agro-terrorism 103
Globalization and Agribusiness 104
The Globalization Process 104
Transnational Corporations 105
A Growing Global Agribusiness 106
Seed and Livestock Corporations 108
Globally Expanding Agro-biotechnology Companies 109
The Private Sector and Environmental Pollution 112
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Towards a Few Large Agricultural Corporations? 114
Global Food Supply 117
Past Performance 117
International Food Conferences—Why Do Not Policy-makers Act? 119
Putting an End to Mega-conferences 122
The Challenge 124
Increased Productivity 124
Can the Challenge Be Met? 125
Some Pros and Cons of the Millennium Development Goals 126
Towards an Agricultural Vision 131
Mission Impossible? 131
Visions 132
Laissez-faire 132
Free Trade 133
Towards an Agricultural Vision 137
Agricultural Technology and Trends in Agricultural Research 140
Agricultural Technology and Innovations 140
Basic Concepts behind Emerging Agricultural Research 141
Past Trends in Agricultural Research 143
The Colonial Period 143
Topical Research Based on Ideas of Western-type Agriculture 145
Towards Food Crops 147
Agricultural Research and Society 149
Agricultural Research at the Crossroads—
Reflections on Future R&D 154
The Changing Framework for Agricultural Research 154
Future Agricultural Research—For Whom? 157
Land Use 160
Agricultural Biodiversity 164
Soil Fertility and Replacement of Nutrients 167
Natural Resource Management 172
Water Resources and Their Agricultural Use 176
Improved Productivity 178
Towards Higher Crop Yields 178
Livestock Research 182
Biotechnology for Food Security and Food Safety 184
The Overall Picture 184
Some Issues 190
© 2007 by Taylor & Francis Group, LLC
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Can Transgenic Crops Help Resource-poor Farmers? 197
Transfer of Power to the Private Sector 198
Plant Protection 200
Crop Losses 200
Efficiency and Long-term Effects of Pesticides 201
Resistance: the Other Side of the Coin 202
Integrated Pest Management (IPM) 204
Bio-pesticides or “Green Chemicals” 205
Biological Control 206
Agriculture and Medicine 207
Fisheries and Aquaculture 209
Dissemination of Agricultural Technology 210
Risk Assessments, Values and Ethics 212
International Agricultural Research through the Consultative
Group on International Agricultural Research (CGIAR) and the
International Centre of Insect Physiology and Ecology (ICIPE) 216
A System of International Agricultural Research Centres 216
Exceptional Growth 217
Attempts at Increased Democracy in a Decade of Stagnating Funds 218
Towards Improved Decision-making 219
Challenges and Unresolved Issues for the CGIAR and Its
Future Harvest Centers 221
Contributions to Overall Impact 221
A Rigorous Review System with Diminishing Influence 225
Governance 229
Responses to Environmental Issues, Poverty Reduction and
New Challenges 232
Collaboration with National Agricultural Research Systems 234
The Private Sector and Intellectual Property Rights 235
CGIAR and the International Treaty on Plant Genetic Resources
for Food and Agriculture 237
Donor Autonomy 241
Swedish Policy on the CGIAR 242
Some Conclusions and Suggestions 244
Some Issues in University Teaching and Future
Role of Agricultural Universities 249
Growth of Universities and University Teaching in Agriculture 249
Some Issues for Universities Serving Future Society in Agriculture
and Land Use 251
Focus on Higher Education 251
Lost Monopoly of Knowledge 253
© 2007 by Taylor & Francis Group, LLC
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Piecemeal Knowledge without Contextual Framework 254
The Illusion of Scientific and Political Freedom 257
Declining Trend in Public Funding 258
Internationalization 259
Future Need and Role of an Agricultural University 261
From College of Agriculture to University of Agricultural Sciences:
Perpetuating Soul Searching 264
Some Conclusions 267
Development Assistance and Science Aid to Agricultural R&D 270
Development Assistance in Perspective: Another Problem Area
of Trend Setting 270
Some Issues for Future Development Assistance 274
Poverty Reduction 274
Policy Dialogue 278
Coordination of External Support at the Country Level 280
Donor Dominance and Low Absorptive Capacity 282
Impact of Aid and Lessons Learnt 282
Corruption 285
Future Role of the UN System in Agriculture, Forestry
and Fishery 286
Poverty Focus in Swedish Development Assistance:
Rhetoric and Reality 288
Some Conclusions 293
Annexes
I. Glossary 295
II. Acronyms and Abbreviations 300
III. The Millennium Development Goals 303
IV. Major International Conferences and Conventions
of Relevance to Poverty Eradication and Agriculture 305
V. Some Highlights of Impact, Research and Policy
Orientation by CGIAR Institutes and ICIPE in the
Mid-1970s and the Early 2000s 309
VI. References 318
Index 333
© 2007 by Taylor & Francis Group, LLC
Global Agriculture and Revisited
Resource-poor Farmers
Introduction
Globally, impressive changes have taken place since World War II. Economic
growth has increased global output fivefold. In 1950, the average man
lived 46 years and 70 per cent of the population in developing countries
was illiterate. Five decades later, life expectancy was 67 years and only 20
per cent of the younger generation was illiterate. Between 1990 and 2002,
average overall incomes increased by about 21 per cent and the number of
people in extreme poverty declined by approximately 130 million (UN
Millennium Project, 2005a). Numerous countries in all regions of the
developing world have proven that success is possible (FAO, 2004). There
is significant progress in East Asia and there have been positive trends in
South Asia. During the last few years, growth rates were 9 to 7 per cent, for
instance, in China, India, Malaya, Hong Kong, Singapore, Chile and
Argentina. Actions by strong governments have provided education, health
and certain incentives for development. This has led to positive changes
also at the village level, as demonstrated in India (Strandberg, 1997;
Lejonhud, 2003). Still, some 850 million people are undernourished
worldwide. Sixty-five per cent of the world’s poor live in Asia, and Sub-
Saharan Africa has faced great difficulties for quite some time. Half the
people in the world now live in democracies. Nevertheless, only some of
the 80 countries classified as democracies are considered to have reached
a level of full democracy.
In the industrialized world, the annual per capita consumption has
steadily increased during the last 25 years. According to estimates by the
World Wealth Report, the number of millionaires globally increased to 8
million between 2002 and 2003, a growth rate of 13 per cent in the United
States, 3 per cent in Europe and 12 per cent in China. The individual rather
than family has become important. One fifth of the poorest of the global
population accounts for 1 per cent of all private consumption. Increased
consumption alone does not necessarily imply “development” in societies
characterized by poverty and great disparities. Poverty and disparity
remain at global, national and local levels and occur both across and
within countries. In Africa, annual per capita consumption has declined,
© 2007 by Taylor & Francis Group, LLC