Table Of Content

Praise for the First Edition ‘a succinct and readily accessible account of the history and key issues associated with chemical and biological weapons from World War ito the present . . . an excellent overview of an often underappreciated segment of 20th- and 21st-century security studies . . . It deserves the thoughtful attention of both students and professionals.’ – Military Review ‘This concise work, with its extensive references and bibliography, will be of interest to all students and professionals in the fields of history, political science, public policy, toxicology, and chemical technology. Recommended.’ – Choice ‘provides a compelling case for governments across the globe not to overlook the potential threat of biological and chemical weapons . . . the book is more than just a history of these weapons, but also an important addition to the literature on the types of threat we are likely to face in the future . . . an important reminder of the substantial destructive and psychological power of chemical and biological weapons, as well as an accessible history about how states have thought about their use and utility in the past.’ – Political Studies Review ‘a comprehensive overview of the development, future, and implications of biological and chemical weapons. Spiers’s book traces the origins of chemical and biological warfare from their ancient beginnings to the first major use of gas in 1915 in World War I, to more recent uses and suspicions of use.’ – Arms Control AGENTS OF WAR A HISTORY OF CHEMICAL AND BIOLOGICAL WEAPONS REVISED AND EXPANDED SECOND EDITION EDWARD M. SPIERS reaktion books Published by Reaktion Books Ltd Unit 32, Waterside 44–48 Wharf Road Londonn1 7ux, uk www.reaktionbooks.co.uk First published 2010 Revised and expanded second edition first published in paperback 2021 Copyright © Edward M. Spiers 2010 All rights reserved No part of this publication may be reproduced, stored in a retrieval system, or transmitted, in any form or by any means, electronic, mechanical, photocopying, recording or otherwise, without the prior permission of the publishers. Printed and bound in in Great Britain by TJ Books Ltd, Padstow, Cornwall A catalogue record for this book is available from the British Library isbn978 1 78914 298 3 Contents Preface 7 Abbreviations 8 Introduction 11 1 The Legacy of Gas Warfare in the First World War 27 2 Deterrence and Disarmament: Responses to Chemical and Biological Warfare, 1919–93 47 3 Chemical Warfare in Third World Conflicts 70 4 The Proliferation of Chemical and Biological Weapons 90 5 Iraq’s Chemical and Biological Warfare Programmes 104 6 Chemical and Biological Terrorism 128 7 The Recurrence of Chemical Warfare in the Middle East 153 8 Political Assassination by Poisoning 176 Conclusion: The Evolving Nature of Chemical and Biological Warfare 194 References 223 Select Bibliography 262 Acknowledgements 264 Index 265 Preface This book is a contribution to the continuing debate over chemical and biological weapons. It is written and presented in a way that makes it broadly accessible, a study that presents both forms of weaponry within their recent historical contexts and then elaborates upon the challenges that they have posed during periods of peace and war. It recognizes that these are highly versatile weapons that can be dispersed by many delivery systems, ranging from missiles, bombs and shells to aerosol dispensers, impregnated foodstuffs, insects and even umbrellas. If chemical weapons have been employed in inter- state and intra-state warfare, the military potential of biological weapons has been demonstrated by all means short of war, and both weapon systems have been employed by terrorists to inflict casualties, cause economic loss, and create widespread panic and disruption. By reflecting upon the sinister image of chemical and biological weapons, the book reviews the debates about their usage and the allegations of covert development and employment that have period - ically erupted into propaganda battles. It examines (and seeks to interpret) the attempts to deter recourse to chemical and biological warfare during the Second World War and the Cold War, to stifle the proliferation of these weapons in recent years, and to promote international disarmament. It seeks to explain how these political and diplomatic initiatives have fared in light of the uncertainties caused by the rapidly evolving scientific and technological develop- ments of recent years, and by the diffusion of scientific expertise and industrial capabilities throughout much of the developing world. As a revised edition, this volume adds chapters on the use of chemical weapons in the Syrian Civil War, and the Novichok poison - ings, as well as reflections upon literature that has appeared since the preparation of the first edition. 7 Abbreviations aef American Expeditionary Force arp Air Raid Precautions btwc Biological and Toxin Weapons Convention bw Biological Warfare cb Chemical Biological cbm Confidence Building Measure cbrn Chemical, Biological, Radiological and Nuclear cbw Chemical and Biological Warfare cdc Centers for Disease Control and Prevention cs orthochlorobenzylidene malononitrile cw Chemical Warfare dhs Department of Homeland Security dia Defense Intelligence Agency dm diphenylchloroarsine (adamsite) dna deoxyribonucleic acid dod Department of Defense eod Explosive Ordnance Disposal fmdv Foot and Mouth Disease Virus FSB Federalnaya Shuzhba Bezopasnosti gao General Accounting (later Accountability) Office GPPi Global Public Policy institute GRU Glavnoe Razvedyvatelnoe Upravlenie humint Human Intelligence (collection method) iaea International Atomic Energy Agency icbm Intercontinental Ballistic Missile ici Imperial Chemical Industries ied Improvised Explosive Device ig Interessengemeinschaft der Deutschen Teerfarbenfabriken isg Iraq Survey Group 8 ISIS Islamic State in Iraq and Syria jic Joint Intelligence Committee JIM Joint Investigative Mission JMIS Joint Mission in Syria KGB Komitet Gosudarstvennoi Bezopasnosti kto Kuwaiti Theatre of Operations mopp Mission Oriented Protective Posture mse Al Muthanna State Establishment nbc Nuclear, Biological and Chemical nie National Intelligence Estimate ntm National Technical Means (intelligence collection) opcw Organization for the Prohibition of Chemical Weapons ota Office of Technology Assessment r&d Research and Development rrl Roodeplaat Research Laboratories scr Security Council Resolution sipri Stockholm Institute for Peace Research tna The National Archives un United Nations unmovic United Nations Monitoring Verification and Inspection Commission unscom United Nations Special Commission usda United States Department of Agriculture wet Water Engineering Trading who World Health Organization wmd Weapons of Mass Destruction 9