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Aerosols Handbook Measurement, Dosimetry, and Health Effects © 2005 by CRC Press Aerosols Handbook Measurement, Dosimetry, and Health Effects Edited by Lev S. Ruzer and Naomi H. Harley CRC PR ESS Boca Raton London New York Washington, D.C. © 2005 by CRC Press Library of Congress Cataloging-in-Publication Data Aerosols handbook: measurement, dosimetry, and health effects / edited by Lev S. Ruzer and Naomi H. Harley. p. cm. Includes bibliographical references and index. ISBN 1-56670-611-4 (alk. paper) 1. Aerosols—Toxicology—Handbooks, manuals, etc. I. Ruzer, Lev S. (Lev Solomonovich) II. Harley, Naomi H. RA1270.A34A374A2004 614.5’92—dc22 2004050336 CIP This book contains information obtained from authentic and highly regarded sources. Reprinted material is quoted with permission, and sources are indicated. Awide variety of references are listed. Reasonable efforts have been made to publish reliable data and information, but the author and the publisher cannot assume responsibility for the validity of all materials or for the consequences of their use. Neither this book nor any part may be reproduced or transmitted in any form or by any means, electronic or mechanical, including photocopying, microfilming, and recording, or by any information storage or retrieval system, without prior permission in writing from the publisher. All rights reserved. Authorization to photocopy for internal or personal use, or the personal or internal use of specific clients, may be granted by CRC Press, provided that $1.50 per page photocopied is paid directly to Copyright Clearance Center, 222 Rosewood Drive, Danvers, MA 01923 USA. The fee code for users of the Transactional Reporting Service is ISBN 1-56670-611-4/04/$0.00+$1.50. The fee is subject to change without notice. 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Visit the CRC Press Web site at www.crcpress.com © 2005 by CRC Press No claim to original U.S. Government works International Standard Book Number 1-56670-611-4 Library of Congress Card Number 2004050336 Printed in the United States of America 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 0 Printed on acid-free paper © 2005 by CRC Press Preface Aerosols consist of particles in the very broad range of sizes from nanometers to hundreds of micrometers (4 to 5 orders of magnitude). Therefore, their behavior is complicated in the atmosphere, indoors, and especially in the lung. Health effects associated with aerosols depend on the physical parameter that we call "dose." Dose depends on the quantity of aerosols in target cells. With the exception of some radioactive aerosols, it is practically impossible to measure dose directly. In practice, assessment of the dose is provided by measuring air concentration and calculating some known parameters. According to the U.S. EPA, "in epidemiological studies, an index of exposure from personal or stationary monitors of selected pollutants is analyzed for associations with health outcomes, such as morbidity or mortality. However, it is a basic tenet of toxicology that the dose delivered to the target site, not the external exposure, is a proximal cause of a response. Therefore, there is increased emphasis on understanding the exposure–dose–response relationship. Exposure is what gets measured in the typical study and what gets regulated; dose is the causative factor." In this book, we present a general, up-to-date overview of all aspects of aerosols, from their properties to the health outcomes. First, current issues related to aerosol measurement are detailed: standardization of measurements for different types of aerosols (indoor, medical and pharmaceutical, industrial, bioactive, and radioactive), with a special emphasis on breathing zone measurements. The handbook also discusses the problems of aerosol dosimetry, such as the definitions of aerosol exposure and aerosol dose, including the issue of nanometer particles, the mechanism of aerosol deposition in the lung, and modeling deposition with an emphasis on the corresponding uncertainty in risk assessment. Aseparate part on radioactive aerosols includes aspects such as radon; natural and artificial aerosols; radioactive aerosols and the Chernobyl accident; dosimetry and epidemiology in miners, including direct dose measurement in the lungs; radon and thoron; and long-lived radionuclides in the environment. It is especially important that the handbook includes an overview of nonradioactive and radioactive aerosols together, because behavior of radioactive aerosols in the lungs, including deposition and biokinetic processes, depends not on their activity, but on particle size distribution and breathing parameters. On the other hand, radioactivity of aerosols is the most useful tool for the study of their behavior in the lungs. The handbook concludes with overviews of different aspects related to the health effects of diesel aerosols, health risks from ultrafine particles, and epidemiology to molec- ular biology. © 2005 by CRC Press Acknowledgments Dr. Ruzer appreciates the support of William Fisk, head of the Indoor Environment Department (IED), Lawrence Berkeley National Laboratory, and staff scientists Richard Sextro, Lara Gundel, Michael Apte, Phillip Price, William Nazaroff, and Anthony Nero for their support. He would also like to acknowledge the work of the scientists and techni- cians of the Aerosol Laboratory at the All-Russian Scientific-Technical Institute for Physico-Technical and Radio-Technical Measurements (VNIIFTRI), Moscow, Russia. Dr. Harley gratefully acknowledges the research support given by the U.S. Department of Energy EMSPProgram DE FG02 03ER 63661 and the support of the staff at the New York University School of Medicine, Department of Environmental Medicine. The editors thank the following individuals for their technical and administrative support: Joyce Cordell-Breckingridge, Olivia Salazar, Sondra Jarvis, Jeiwon Deputy, Eve Edelson, Julia Alter, Joanne Lambert, Marcy Beck, and Rita Labrie. The editors also gratefully acknowledge the following individuals at CRC Press: Randi Cohen, who played an important role in preparing this book for publication from the beginning, and Matt Lamoreaux and Julie Spadaro, who worked hard during the final stages of production. Thanks and appreciation also go to the production team at Macmillan-India. © 2005 by CRC Press Editors Lev S. Ruzerwas born in Odessa, Ukraine, in 1922. His mother died when he was 5 years old. Five years later, his father was executed under Stalin's regime. After graduating from high school, he studied physics and mathematics at Odessa University until the beginning of World War II. After being demobilized from the Soviet Army, he enrolled at a recently founded Department of Nuclear Physics at Moscow University. After graduation, he could not work as a scientist for political reasons: he had relatives in the United States and his father had been executed. For 8 years, he worked as a teacher in Moscow schools. After Stalin's death, he found a job as a scientist in a medical institute. The research study included the assessment of dose to animals exposed to radon and its decay prod- ucts. Based on this theoretical and experimental work, he defended his degree as a Candidate of Physico-Mathematical Sciences (equivalent to a Ph.D.) in 1961. He worked from 1961 to 1979 in the All-Union Institute of Physico-Technical and Radio-Technical Measurements as a founder and chairman of the Aerosol Laboratory. In 1973, the Aerosol Laboratory became the State Standard on Aerosols in the Soviet Union. In addition to becoming the main center of aerosol measurement and metrology in the country, the laboratory focused on development and using methods of direct dosimetry on miners in both uranium and nonuranium mines. In 1968, Dr. Ruzer published his book Radioactive Aerosols in Russian. In 1970, he defended his degree of Doctor of Technical Sciences, and in 1977 he became a professor. He also served as scientific supervisor to 8 Candidates of Science. In 1977, he was discharged from his position for political reasons: his children were involved in dissident activity. He spent the following 8 years without work and unable to obtain permission to emigrate. He finally arrived in the United States in 1987. In 1989, his second book, Aerosols R&D in the Soviet Union, was published in English. Since 1989, he has been working as a researcher in the Indoor Environment Department, Environmental Energy Technologies Division, at the Lawrence Berkeley National Laboratory. Dr. Ruzer has published in more than 110 publications and holds three patents. Naomi H. Harley received an undergraduate degree (B.S.) in electrical engineering from The Cooper Union, a masters degree (M.E.) in nuclear engineering, and a Ph.D. in radio- logical physics from the New York University Graduate School. She obtained an APC in management from the New York University Graduate Business School. Dr. Harley was elected a council member to the National Council on Radiation Protection and Measurements (NCRP) in 1982 and was made an honorary member in 2000. She is an advisor to the United Nations Scientific Committee on the Effects of Atomic Radiation (UNSCEAR). Dr. Harley's major research interests are the measurement of inhaled or ingested radionuclides, the measurement of environmental radioactivity, the modeling of their fate within the human body, the calculation of the detailed radiation dose to cells specifically implicated in carcinogenesis, and risk assessment from exposure to internal radioactivity. Dr. Harley has authored over 150 journal publications, six book chapters, and has four patents for radiation detection instrumentation. The most recent patent, issued in 2004, was for a miniature passive radon and thoron detector. © 2005 by CRC Press Contributors Michael G. Apte James W. Gentry Lawrence Berkeley National Laboratory Department of Chemical Engineering Indoor Environment Department University of Maryland Berkeley, California College Park, Maryland Paul A. Baron Lara A. Gundel NIOSH Indoor Environment Department Cincinnati, Ohio Environmental Energy Technologies Division A.K. Budyka Lawrence Berkeley National Karpov Physico-Chemical Institute Laboratory Moscow, Russia Berkeley, California Beverly S. Cohen Max M. Häggblom Nelson Institute of Environmental Department of Biochemistry and Medicine Microbiology New York University Rutgers University New York, New York New Brunswick, New Jersey Daniel J. Cooney Naomi H. Harley Dispersed Systems Laboratory New York University School of University of North Carolina Medicine Chapel Hill, North Carolina New York, New York D.E. Fertman Maire S.A. Heikkinen Scientific Engineering Centre Department of Environmental SNIIP Medicine Moscow, Russia New York University School of Medicine Isabel M. Fisenne New York, New York USDHS Environmental Measurements Laboratory Anthony J. Hickey New York, New York Dispersed Systems Laboratory University of North Carolina Lucila Garcia-Contreras Chapel Hill, North Carolina Dispersed Systems Laboratory University of North Carolina William C. Hinds Chapel Hill, North Carolina Department of Environmental Health Sciences Robert J. Garmise Center for Occupational and Dispersed Systems Laboratory Environmental Health University of North Carolina UCLASchool of Public Health Chapel Hill, North Carolina Los Angeles, California © 2005 by CRC Press Mervi K. Hjelmroos-Koski Mark L. Maiello Environmental Health Sciences Wyeth Research School of Public Health R&D Environmental Health and Safety University of California Pearl River, New York Berkeley, California Ted B. Martonen Philip K. Hopke U.S. EPA Department of Chemical Engineering National Health and Environmental Clarkson University Effects Laboratory Potsdam, New York Research Triangle Park, North Carolina and J.P. Johnson Department of Medicine Department of Mechanical Engineering Division of Pulmonary Diseases University of Minnesota University of North Carolina Minneapolis, Minnesota Chapel Hill, North Carolina Latarsha D. Jones Andrew D. Maynard Transave, Inc. National Institute for Occupational Safety Monmouth Junction, New Jersey and Health Robert A. Taft Laboratory Kristin King Isaacs Cincinnati, Ohio National Health and Environmental Effects Research Laboratory B.I. Ogorodnikov U.S. Environmental Protection Agency Karpov Physico-Chemical Institute Research Triangle Park, North Carolina Moscow, Russia David B. Kittelson I.V. Pavlov Department of Mechanical Engineering VNIPI PT University of Minnesota Moscow, Russia Minneapolis, Minnesota Phillip N. Price V.L. Kustova Lawrence Berkeley National Laboratory All-Russian Scientific Research Institute Indoor Environment Department of Physico-Technical and Berkeley, California Radio-Technical Measurements VNIIFTRI A.I. Rizin Moscow, Russia Scientific Engineering Centre SNIIP Yu.V. Kuznetzov Moscow, Russia All-Russian Scientific Research Institute of Physico-Technical and Charles E. Rodes Radio-Technical Measurements Center for Aerosol Technology VNIIFTRI RTI International Moscow, Russia Research Triangle Park, North Carolina Janet M. Macher Jacky A. Rosati California Department of Health U.S. EPA Services National Risk Management Research Environmental Health Laboratory Branch Laboratory Berkeley, California Research Triangle Park, North Carolina © 2005 by CRC Press Lev S. Ruzer Ira B. Tager Lawrence Berkeley National Laboratory School of Public Health Indoor Environment Department University of California Berkeley, California Berkeley, California Jonathan M. Samet Jonathan W. Thornburg Department of Epidemiology Center for Aerosol Technology Johns Hopkins Bloomberg School of RTI International Public Health Research Triangle Park, North Carolina Baltimore, Maryland W.F. Watts Richard G. Sextro Department of Mechanical Engineering Lawrence Berkeley National Laboratory University of Minnesota Indoor Environment Department Minneapolis, Minnesota Berkeley, California Hugh Smyth Dispersed Systems Laboratory University of North Carolina Chapel Hill, North Carolina © 2005 by CRC Press Contents Chapter 1 Aspects of health-related aerosols James W. Gentry Chapter 2 Aerosol properties William C. Hinds Chapter 3 Advances in monitoring methods for airborne particles Philip K. Hopke Chapter 4 Ultrafine and nanoparticle emissions: Anew challenge for internal combustion engine designers D. B. Kittelson, W.F. Watts, and J.P. Johnson Chapter 5 Breathing zone exposure assessment Charles E. Rodes and Jonathan W. Thornburg Chapter 6 Mechanisms of particle deposition Kristin K. Isaacs, Jacky A. Rosati, and Ted B. Martonen Chapter 7 Aerosol dose Lev S. Ruzer, Michael G. Apte, and Richard G. Sextro Chapter 8 Modeling deposition of inhaled particles Ted B. Martonen, Jacky A. Rosati, and Kristin K. Isaacs Chapter 9 Assessing uncertainties in the relationship between inhaled particle concentrations, internal deposition, and health effects Phillip N. Price Chapter 10 Aerosol chemistry and physics: Indoor perspective Lara A. Gundel and Richard G. Sextro Chapter 11 Aerosols in the industrial environment Andrew D. Maynard and Paul A. Baron Chapter 12 Medical and pharmaceutical aerosols Hugh D.C. Smyth, Lucila Garcia-Contreras, Daniel J. Cooney, Robert J. Garmise, Latarsha D. Jones, and Anthony J. Hickey Chapter 13 Bioaerosols Maire S.A. Heikkinen, Mervi K. Hjelmroos-Koski, Max M. Häggblom, and Janet M. Macher Chapter 14 Radioactive aerosols Lev S. Ruzer © 2005 by CRC Press