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Advances in Remote Sensing Technology and the Three Poles Advances in Remote Sensing Technology and the Three Poles Edited by Manish Pandey Chandigarh University, Department of Civil Engineering, Mohali, India Prem C. Pandey School of Natural Sciences, Shiv Nadar Institution of Eminence, Center for Environmental Sciences & Engineering, Greater Noida, Uttar Pradesh, India Yogesh Ray National Centre for Polar and Ocean Research, Headland Sada, Vasco-da-Gama, Goa Aman Arora Bihar Mausam Seva Kendra, Planning and Development Department, Bihar, India Shridhar D. Jawak University Centre in Svalbard, Longyearbyen, Norway Uma K. Shukla Banaras Hindu University, Institute of Science, Varnasi, Uttar Pradesh, India This edition first published 2023 © 2023 John Wiley & Sons Ltd All rights reserved. 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Neither the publisher nor authors shall be liable for any loss of profit or any other commercial damages, including but not limited to special, incidental, consequential, or other damages. Library of Congress Cataloging-in-Publication Data Names: Pandey, Manish (Assistant professor), editor. Title: Advances in remote sensing technology and the three poles / edited by Manish Pandey [and five others] Description: Hoboken, NJ : John Wiley & Sons, 2023. Identifiers: LCCN 2022028873 | ISBN 9781119787723 (hardback) | ISBN 9781119787730 (pdf) | ISBN 9781119787747 (epub) | ISBN 9781119787754 (ebook) Subjects: LCSH: Remote sensing--Polar regions. | Remote sensing--Hindu Kush-Himalayan Region. Classification: LCC G70.5.P73 .A38 2023 | DDC 621.36/780911--dc23/eng20221013 LC record available at https://lccn.loc.gov/2022028873 Cover image: © LEONELLO CALVETTI/Getty Images Cover design by Wiley Set in 9.5/12.5pt STIXTwoText by Integra Software Services Pvt. Ltd, Pondicherry, India Indra Bir Singh (1943–2021) Department of Geology, University of Lucknow, Lucknow, Uttar Pradesh, India Prof I.B. Singh was an eminent scholar of international and fluvial origin, Prof Singh was able to interpret the depo- repute, a dedicated geoscientist, and an ideal teacher. He sitional environments of the Himalayan rock sequences pre- was born on 8 July 1943 in Lucknow, Uttar Pradesh, India. cisely in terms of physical processes and age. He reinterpreted Prof Singh breathed his last in the morning of 11 February the Krol belt of Himalaya as Upper Proterozoic, which had 2021 after a brief illness. He completed his secondary edu- been considered to be of Mesozoic age for over a century. cation from the Lucknow Christian College in 1956. For This study changed the stratigraphy and evolutionary history higher education, he joined the Lucknow University, from of the Himalaya. He made many significant contributions for where he obtained a BSc (1961) and MSc (1962) in Geology. understanding rock sequences of the Kashmir, Kachchh, This was the time when his classmates noticed in him an Gondwana, and Himalaya, east coast delta. These studies exceptional ability to look at the subject of Geology in a provided an in-depth understanding of the depositional pro- more common way relating to natural processes at work. cesses based on field-based Facies Analysis. After completing his post graduation, he joined the Oil and In the early 1990s, Prof Singh established a very strong Natural Gas Corporation of India for a brief period and group with his students and adopted a multiproxy approach being unsatisfied with the job he left. He went to Germany including Facies Analysis supported by OSL dating, geo- to obtain a Dr.Rer.nat. degree from Technical University, chemistry, and isotopic signatures to study the Ganga Plain Stuttgart, Germany in 1966 under the supervision of H. of Himalayan Foreland Basin. He worked on the landform Aldinger. He then worked as a research associate at evolution, architectural element analysis of channel bars. Senckenberg Institute, Wilhelmshaven, Germany in 1966. and floodplain deposits. His group identified the contribu- He spent two years (1967–1968) as a Post-doctoral fellow at tion of interfluves (doab) processes in the fluvial domain the Oslo University, Norway. Later, he returned to which was a new discovery. This study provided insights Senckenberg Institute, Wilhelmshaven, as Alexander von into the nature of river systems, chronology to the Late Humboldt Fellow and worked from 1969 to 1972 on mod- Quaternary landform evolution, tectonic events, and cli- ern shallow marine sediments. mate changes in the Ganga Plain. He emphasized geoar- In 1972, Prof Singh returned to India and started working chaeological aspects of the Ganga Plain and has been able in the Department of Geology, University of Lucknow, from to establish palaeovegetation, human settlement patterns, where he retired as Head of the Department in 2008. He and agricultural activity, particularly the domestication of brought out qualitative changes in teaching and research of rice. Working on different aspects, Prof Singh guided 15 the Department. He headed the department in the most doctoral theses and published about 200 research papers in democratic way and raised it to the level of Centre of Advance journals of national and international repute. His students Studies in Geology. Returning to India, he started working on have now established themselves as leaders in their own the sedimentary sequences of the Himalaya and central India right and are a tribute to the training he imparted. With ranging in age from the Precambrian to Holocene. Applying Prof H.E. Reineck, he co-authored the book, “Depositional his experience of working on modern sediments of marine Sedimentary Environments,” published in 1973. This is a classic book on depositional environments and has been India. He was honored with Fellow of Alexander von translated into Russian and Chinese. With A.S.R. Swamy, Humboldt Foundation, Germany in 1988–1989. Prof he also wrote the book entitled “Delta Sedimentation: East Singh was visiting Professor at Louisiana State University, Coast of India.” USA (1984–1986) and at the University of Erlangen– Prof Singh was elected as Fellow of Indian National Nuremberg, Germany (1998–1999). He has served as a Science Academy, New Delhi in 1995. He was a recipient board member of governing bodies on several commit- of the National Mineral Award, Government of India tees dealing with research and teaching and is easily (1996) and National Award for excellence in Earth placed among those few who have impacted Indian geo- System Science in 2013. He also received the L. Rama sciences, research, and teaching in a fundamental way Rao Birth Centenary Award of the Geological Society of and with indigenous resources and ideas. vii Contents About the Editors xvii Notes on Contributors xx Foreword xxv Preface xxvi List of Acronyms xxviii Section I Earth Observation (EO) and Remote Sensing (RS) Applications in Polar Studies 1 1 The Three Poles: Advances in Remote Sensing in Relation to Spheres of the Planet Earth 3 Manish Pandey, Prem C. Pandey, Yogesh Ray, Aman Arora, Shridhar Digmabar Jawak, and Uma Kant Shukla 1.1 Introduction 3 1.1.1 Earth as a System and Components of the Earth System 4 1.1.2 Role of the “Three Poles” and the Three Poles Regions in the Earth System 4 1.1.2.1 Defining the Three Poles, Three Poles Regions, and Their Geographical Extent 4 1.1.2.2 Interaction Among Components of the Earth System and Role of the Three Poles 5 1.1.3 Advancement of RS Technologies in Relation to Their Application in the Three Poles Regions 6 1.1.3.1 Remote Sensing Technology Advancements 6 1.1.3.2 Role of Remote Sensing (RS) in Mapping/Monitoring/Quantitative Analysis of Sub-Systems of Our Planet in the Three Poles Regions 7 1.2 Aim of the Book and Its Five Sections 11 1.3 Overview of the Contributing Chapters Covering Research About Different Aspects of the Sub-Systems of Our Planet in the Three Poles Regions 11 1.4 Summary and Recommendations 14 References 15 2 Continuous Satellite Missions, Data Availability, and Nature of Future Satellite Missions with Implications to Polar Regions 24 Jagriti Mishra, Takuya Inoue, and Avinash Kumar Pandey 2.1 Introduction 24 2.1.1 Types of Orbit 24 2.1.1.1 High Earth Orbit (HEO) 25 2.1.1.2 Medium Earth Orbit (MEO) 25 2.1.1.3 Semi-Synchronous Orbit 25 2.1.1.4 Molniya Orbit 25 2.1.1.5 Low Earth Orbit (LEO) 25 2.1.1.6 Polar Orbit and Sun-Synchronous Orbit 25 2.1.1.7 Lagrange’s Point 26 2.2 Satellite Missions and Data Availability 26 2.3 Future Satellite Missions 26 2.4 Applicability of Satellite Products in Three Poles Regions 32 2.5 Challenges and Limitations 33 2.6 Summary 34 Acknowledgments 34 References 34 3 Assessing the Accuracy of Digital Elevation Models for Darjeeling-Sikkim Himalayas 36 Prodip Mandal and Shraban Sarkar 3.1 Introduction 36 3.2 Study Area 37 viii Contents 3.3 Materials and Methods 38 3.3.1 Generation of Cartosat-1 DEM and Orthoimage 38 3.3.2 TanDEM-X 40 3.3.3 ALOS PALSAR 40 3.3.4 DGPS Survey for Obtaining Ground Control Points (GCPs) 40 3.3.5 Datum Transformation 40 3.3.6 Accuracy Assessment Methods 40 3.3.6.1 Vertical Accuracy 41 3.3.6.2 Spatial Accuracy 41 3.4 Results and Discussion 41 3.4.1 Vertical Accuracy Assessment: Comparison of DEMs With Reference to GCPs 41 3.4.2 Vertical Accuracy of DEMs for Different Land Use Classes 41 3.4.2.1 Dense Forest 41 3.4.2.2 Open Forest 43 3.4.2.3 Tea Garden 43 3.4.2.4 Built-up Area 43 3.4.3 Spatial Accuracy Assessment: Comparison of DEMs With Reference to Stream Networks 43 3.5 Conclusions 45 Acknowledgments 46 References 46 4 An Overview of Morphometry Software Packages, Tools, and Add-ons 49 Satarupa Mitra, Shailendra Pundir, Rahul Devrani, Aman Arora, Manish Pandey, Romulus Costache, and Saeid Janizadeh 4.1 Introduction 49 4.2 Overview of Morphometry Tools and Toolboxes 50 4.3 Stand-Alone Tools 52 4.4 Tools that Run within Coding Bases 54 4.5 Conclusion 55 References 55 5 Landscape Modeling, Glacier and Ice Sheet Dynamics, and the Three Poles: A Review of Models, Softwares, and Tools 58 Satarupa Mitra, Rahul Devrani, Manish Pandey, Aman Arora, Romulus Costache, and Saeid Janizadeh 5.1 Introduction 58 5.2 Taxonomy 59 5.2.1 Geomorphic Process-Based Models 60 5.2.2 Classification Based on Process of Modeling 60 5.2.2.1 Based on Geomorphic Processes 60 5.2.2.2 Based on Modeling Process 60 5.3 Working Principles for Geomorphological Models 61 5.3.1 Soil Production 61 5.3.2 Hillslope Transport 62 5.3.3 Land Sliding 62 5.3.4 Fluvial Incision and Transport 62 5.3.5 Glacial Erosion 62 5.4 Landscape Evolution Models 63 5.4.1 DEM-Based Models 63 5.4.2 SIBERIA 63 5.4.3 GOLEM 64 5.4.4 CASCADE 64 5.4.5 ZScape 64 5.4.6 CHILD 64 5.4.7 CAESAR 65 5.4.8 APERO 65 5.4.9 SIGNUM (Simple Integrated Geomorphological Numerical Model) 65 Contents ix 5.4.10 TTLEM (TopoToolbox Landscape Evolution Model) 1.0 65 5.5 Other Models 65 5.5.1 DELIM 65 5.5.2 EROS 66 5.5.3 Landscape Evolution Model Using Global Search 66 5.5.4 eSCAPE 66 5.5.5 r.sim.terrain 1.0 66 5.6 Combined/Application-Specific Models 66 5.7 Machine Learning Models 66 5.8 LEMs Developed for Glaciated Landscapes 66 5.9 Some Significant Glacier Evolution Models 68 5.10 Models Developed for Alpine Regions 71 5.11 Models Developed for the Arctic Regio 72 5.12 Models Developed for the Antarctic Region 72 5.13 Conclusion and Future Prospects 75 Acknowledgment 75 Declaration of Competing Interest 75 References 76 6 Spectral Indices Across Remote Sensing Platforms and Sensors Relating to the Three Poles: An Overview of Applications, Challenges, and Future Prospects 83 Mallikarjun Mishra, Kiran Kumari Singh, Prem C. Pandey, Rahul Devrani, Avinash Kumar Pandey, KN Prudhvi Raju, Prabhat Ranjan, Aman Arora, Romulus Costache, Saeid Janizadeh, Nguyen Thuy Linh, and Manish Pandey 6.1 Introduction 83 6.2 Database and Methodology 84 6.3 Rationale of Different Spectral Indices Across RS Sensors and Platforms 85 6.4 RS Sensors and Platforms: Characteristics (Spatial, Temporal, Spectral, and Radiometric Resolutions) 87 6.5 Most Widely and Popularly Used Spectral Indices 87 6.5.1 Spectral Indices and Lithosphere 87 6.5.2 Spectral Indices and Hydrosphere 88 6.5.3 Spectral Indices and Atmosphere 90 6.5.4 Spectral Indices and Biosphere 91 6.5.5 Spectral Indices and Anthroposphere 103 6.6 Thematic Evolution and Trends 105 6.6.1 Thematic and Network Maps 105 6.7 Summary and Recommendations 110 Acknowledgments 111 References 111 Section II Antarctica: The Southernmost Continent Having the South Pole Environment and Remote Sensing 117 7 Glacier Dynamics in East Antarctica: A Remote Sensing Perspective 119 Kiledar Singh Tomar, Sangita Singh Tomar, Ashutosh Venkatesh Prasad, and Alvarinho J. Luis 7.1 Introduction 119 7.2 Satellite Remote Sensing of Glacier Dynamics in East Antarctica 120 7.3 Glacier Velocity Estimation Using Remote Sensing 121 7.3.1 Glacier Velocity Estimation Using SAR Interferometry 121 7.3.2 Glacier Velocity Estimation Using Offset Tracking 121 7.4 Remote Sensing Based Dynamics of PRG: A Case Study 122 7.4.1 Data and Methods 123 7.4.2 Results and Discussion 123 7.4.2.1 Ice Front Location 123 7.4.2.2 Glacier Velocity Over the Period of 2016–2019 124 7.4.3 Summary and Conclusion 124 References 125 x Contents 8 Terrestrial Deglaciation Signatures in East Antarctica 128 Uday Sharma, Yogesh Ray, and Manish Pandey 8.1 Introduction 128 8.2 Geomorphology 128 8.2.1 East Antarctica 129 8.3 Landform Variation Concerning Various Sectors and Elevation 132 8.3.1 Dronning Maud Land 132 8.3.2 Enderby Land 133 8.3.3 Mac. Robertson Land, Amery Ice Shelf, and Prince Elizabeth Land 133 8.3.4 Wilkes Land 135 8.4 Chronology 135 8.4.1 Dronning Maud Land 136 8.4.2 Enderby Land 137 8.4.3 Mac. Robertson Land, Amery Ice Shelf ’s and Princess Elizabeth Land 137 8.4.4 Wilkes Land 138 8.5 Discussion 138 8.6 Conclusion 139 Acknowledgments 140 References 140 9 Geospatial Tools for Monitoring Vertebrate Populations in Antarctica With a Note on the Ecological Component of the Indian Antarctic Program 144 Anant Pande, Ankita Anand, Shailendra Saini, and Kuppusamy Sivakumar 9.1 Introduction 144 9.2 Novel Geospatial Tools for Biodiversity Monitoring in Antarctica 145 9.2.1 Unmanned Aerial Vehicles 145 9.2.2 Satellite Imagery 147 9.3 Spatial Mapping of Seabirds Under the Indian Antarctic Program 149 9.4 Recommendations to Incorporate New Tools for Antarctic Wildlife Monitoring Program 151 9.5 Conclusion 152 Acknowledgments 152 References 152 10 Bryophytes of Larsemann Hills, East Antarctica and Future Prospects 155 Devendra Singh 10.1 Introduction 155 10.2 Study Area 156 10.3 Materials and Methods 156 10.4 Taxonomic Treatment 156 10.5 Phytosociological Studies 174 10.6 Results and Discussion 175 10.7 Future Prospects 175 Acknowledgments 177 References 177 11 Antarctic Sea Ice Variability and Trends Over the Last Four Decades 179 Swathi M., Juhi Yadav, Avinash Kumar, and Rahul Mohan 11.1 Introduction 179 11.2 Datasets and Methods 180 11.2.1 Sea Ice Extent Analysis 180 11.2.2 Analysis of Physical Parameters 181 11.3 Results and Discussion 182 11.3.1 Sea Ice Variability in the Southern Ocean 182 11.3.2 Sea Ice Distribution With Respect to Ocean-Atmospheric Temperature 182 11.4 Summary and Conclusions 187