Advances in Lithium-Ion Batteries PDF
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Advances in Lithium-Ion Batteries Advances in Lithium-Ion Batteries Edited by Walter A. van Schalkwijk SelfCHARGE,Inc. Redmond, Washington Department of Chemical Engineering University of Washington Seattle, Washington, U.S.A. and Bruno Scrosati Department of Chemistry University of Rome “La Sapienza” Rome, Italy KLUWER ACADEMIC PUBLISHERS NEW YORK, BOSTON, DORDRECHT, LONDON, MOSCOW eBookISBN: 0-306-47508-1 Print ISBN: 0-306-47356-9 ©2002 Kluwer Academic Publishers NewYork, Boston, Dordrecht, London, Moscow Print ©2002 Kluwer Academic/Plenum Publishers New York All rights reserved No part of this eBook maybe reproducedor transmitted inanyform or byanymeans,electronic, mechanical, recording, or otherwise, without written consent from the Publisher Created in the United States of America Visit Kluwer Online at: http://kluweronline.com and Kluwer's eBookstore at: http://ebooks.kluweronline.com Acknowledgment Dr. Scrosati would like to acknowledge his wife, Etta Voso, for her patience and continuous support of his work. The many exchanges with chapter authors were appreciated, as were the helpful suggestions of Mark Salomon. The contribution on fuzzy logic battery manage- ment from Professor Pritpal Singh of Villanova University and the rapid turn of some artwork by Liann Yi from his lab was greatly appreciated. Thank you also to Brad Taylor and Kevin Talbot for reworking some of the more complicated figures. Lastly, Dr. van Schalkwijk wishes to acknowledge the support of his co-editor, and the hospitality of his institution and research group during his visit to Rome. Walter van Schalkwijk Seattle, Washington Bruno Scrosati Rome, Italy v Contributors Caria Arbizzani University of Bologna, Dip. Chimica “G. Ciamician”, Via F. Selmi 2, 40126 Bologna, Italy Doron Aurbach Department of Chemistry, Bar-Ilan University, Ramat-Gan 52900, Israel George F. Blomgren Blomgren Consulting Services Ltd., 1554 Clarence Ave., Lake- wood, Ohio 44107, U.S.A. Ralph J. Brodd Broddarp of Nevada, Inc., 2151 Fountain Springs Drive, Henderson, Nevada 89074, U.S.A. Michael Broussely SAFT, F-86060 Poitiers, France Robert M. Darling International Fuel Cells, South Windsor, Connecticut, U.S.A. John B. Goodenough Texas Materials Institute, ETC 9.102, University of Texas at Austin, Austin, Texas, U.S.A. Mary Hendrickson U.S. Army CECOM RDEC, Army Power Division, AMSEL-R2- AP-BA, Ft. Monmouth, New Jersey 07703-5601, U.S.A. H. Ikuta Department of Applied Chemistry, Tokyo Institute of Technology, 2-12-1 Ookayama, Meguro-ku Tokyo 152-8552, Japan Minoru Inaba Department of Energy & Hydrocarbon Chemistry, Graduate School of Engineering, Kyoto University, Sakyo-ku, Kyoto 606-01, Japan Hsiu-ping Lin MaxPower, Inc., 220 Stahl Road, Harleysville, Pennsylvania 19438, U.S.A. Marina Mastragostino University of Bologna, UCA Scienze Chimiche, Via San Donato 15, 40127 Bologna, Italy John Newman Department of Chemical Engineering, University of California at Berke- ley; and Lawrence Berkeley National Labs, Berkeley, California, U.S.A. Yoshio Nishi Sony Corporation, 1-11-1 Osaki, Shinagawa-ku, 141-0032 Tokyo, Japan Zempachi Ogumi Department of Energy & Hydrocarbon Chemistry, Graduate School of Engineering, Kyoto University, Sakyo-ku, Kyoto 606-01, Japan vii Contributors viii Edward J. Plichta U.S. Army CECOM RDEC, Army Power Division, AMSEL-R2-AP- BA, Ft. Monmouth, New Jersey 07703-5601, U.S.A. Mark Salomon MaxPower, Inc., 220 Stahl Road, Harleysville, Pennsylvania 19438, U.S.A. Bruno Scrosati Department of Chemistry, University of Rome “La Sapienza”, 00185 Rome, Italy Francesca Soavi Univeristy of Bologna, UCI Scienze Chimiche, Via San Donato 15, 40127 Bologna, Italy Robert Spotnitz Battery Design Company, Pleasanton, California, U.S.A. Kazuo Tagawa Hoshen Corporation, 10-4-601 Minami Senba 4-chome, Chuo-ku, Osaka 542-0081, Japan Karen E. Thomas Department of Chemical Engineering, University of California at Berkeley; and Lawrence Berkeley National Labs, Berkeley, California, U.S.A. Y. Uchimoto Department of Applied Chemistry, Tokyo Institute of Technology, 2-12-1 Ookayama, Meguro-ku Tokyo 152-8552, Japan Walter A. van Schalkwijk SelfCHARGE, Inc., Redmond, Washington; and Department of Chemical Engineering, University of Washington, Seattle, Washington, U.S.A. M. Wakihara Department of Applied Chemistry, Tokyo Institute of Technology, 2-12-1 Ookayama, Meguro-ku Tokyo 152-8552, Japan Andrew Webber Energizer, 23225 Detroit Rd., P.O. Box 450777, Westlake, Ohio 44145, U.S.A. Jun-ichi Yamaki Institute of Advanced Material Study, Kyushu University, Kasuga 816-8580, Japan Contents Introduction 1 B. Sacrosati and W.A. van Schalkwijk 1. The Role of Surface Films on Electrodes in Li-Ion Batteries 7 D. Aurbach 2. Carbon Anodes 79 Z. Ogumi and M. Inaba 3. Manganese Vanadates and Molybdates as Anode Materials for Lithium- Ion Batteries 103 M. Wakihara, H. Ikuta, and Y. Uchimoto 4. Oxide Cathodes 135 J.B. Goodenough 5. Liquid Electrolytes 155 J-i. Yamaki 6. Ionic Liquids for Lithium-Ion and Related Batteries 185 A. Webber and G. E. Blomgren 7. Lithium-Ion Secondary Batteries with Gelled Polymer Electrolytes 233 Y. Nishi 8. Lithium Polymer Electrolytes 251 B. Scrosati 9. Lithium-Ion Cell Production Processess 267 R.J. Brodd and K. Tagawa 10. Low-Voltage Lithium-Ion Cells 289 B. Scrosati ix x Contents 11. Temperature Effects on Li-Ion Cell Performance 309 M. Salomon, H-p. Lin, E.J. Plichta and M. Hendrickson 12. Mathematical Modeling of Lithium Batteries 345 K.E. Thomas, J. Newman, and R.M. Darling 13. Aging Mechanisms and Calendar-Life Predictions 393 M. Broussely 14. Scale-Up of Lithium-Ion Cells and Batteries 433 R. Spotnitz 15. Charging, Monitoring and Control 459 W.A. van Schlakwijk 16. Advances in Electrochemical Supercapacitors 481 M. Mastragostino, F. Soavi and C. Arbizzani Index 507 Advances in Lithium Ion Batteries Introduction Walter van Schalkwijk Bruno Scrosati SelfCHARGE Inc., Redmond, WA Universita "La Sapienza" Department of Chemical Engineering, Dipartimento di Chimica University of Washington, Seattle, WA Opiazza Aldo Moro 5, 00185 Rome USA Italy Portable power applications continue to drive research and development of advanced battery systems. Often, the extra energy content and considerations of portability have outweighed economics when a system is considered. This has been true of lithium battery technologies for the past thirty years and for lithium ion battery systems, which evolved from the early lithium battery development. In recent years, the need for portable power has accelerated due to the miniaturization of electronic appliances where in some cases the battery system is as much as half the weight and volume of the powered device. Lithium has the lightest weight, highest voltage, and greatest energy density of all metals. The first published interest in lithium batteries began with the work of Harris in 1958 [1]. The work eventually led to the development and commercialization of a variety of primary lithium cells during the 1970s. The more prominent systems included lithium/sulfurdi- oxide lithium-thionylchloride lithium-sulfurylchloride lithium-polycarbon monofluoride lithium-manganese dioxide and lithium-iodine Apologies to any chemistries that were not mentioned, but were studied and developed by the legions of scientists and engineers who worked on the many lithium battery couples during those early days. The 1980s brought many attempts to develop a rechargeable lithium battery; an effort that was inhibited by difficulties recharging the metallic lithium anode. There were occasional unfortunate events pertaining to safety (often an audible with venting and flame). These events were often due to the reactivity of metallic lithium (especially electrodeposited lithium with electrolyte solutions, but events were also attributed to a variety of other reactive conditions. Primary and secondary lithium batteries use non-aqueous electrolytes, which are inherently orders of magnitude less conductive than aqueous electrolytes. The reactions of the lithium electrode were studied extensively and this included a number of strategies to modify the reactivity of the Li-solution interface and thus improve its utility and safety [2]. 2 Introduction Studies of fast ion conduction in solids demonstrated that alkali metal ions could move rapidly in an electronically conducting lattice containing transition metal atoms in a mixed valence state. When the host structure is fully populated with alkali metal atoms - lithium ions in the most common context – the transition metal atom is in the reduced state. The structure is fully lithiated. As lithium ions are removed from the host, the transition metal (and host structure) is oxidized. A host structure is a good candidate for an electrode if (1) it is a mixed ionic-electronic conductor, (2) the removal of lithium (or other alkali metal ion) does not change the structure over a large range of the solid solution, (3) the lithiated (reduced) structure and partially lithiated (partially oxidized) exhibit a suitable potential difference versus lithium, (4) the host lattice dimension changes on insertion/removal of lithium are not too large, and (5) have an operational voltage range that is compatible with the redox range of stability for an accompanying electrolyte. This led to the development of rechargeable lithium batteries during the late 1970s and 1980s using lithium insertion compounds as positive electrodes. The first cells of this type appeared when Exxon and Moli Energy tried to commercialize the and systems, respectively. These were low voltage systems operating near 2 volts. In a large compilation of early research, Whittingham [3] reviewed the properties and preparation of many insertion compounds and discussed the intercalation reaction. The most prominent of these to find their way into batteries were and All of these systems continued to use metallic lithium anodes. The safety problems, real or perceived, limited the commercial application of rechargeable batteries using metallic lithium anodes. During that era Steele considered insertion compounds as battery electrodes and suggested graphite and the layered sulfide as potential candidates for electrodes of a lithium-ion battery based on a non-aqueous liquid electrolyte [4]. After the era of the transition metal chalcogenides came the higher voltage metal oxides (where M = Ni, Co, or Mn) [5,6]. These materials are the basis for the most commonly used cathodes in commercial lithium-ion cells. At about that time the concept of a lithium-ion cell was tested in the laboratory with two insertion electrodes cycling lithium ions between them, thus eliminating the use of a metallic lithium anode [7,8]. The next decade saw substantial research and development on advanced battery systems based upon the insertion and removal of lithium ions into host compounds serving as both electrodes. Much of the work was associated with finding a suitable material to host lithium ions as a battery negative. As mentioned before, the concept is not new: Steele and Armand suggested it in the 1970s [4,9,10]. Eventually, in 1991, Sony introduced the first commercial lithium-ion cell based on The cells had an open circuit potential of 4.2 V and an operational voltage of 3.6 V.
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