ebook img

Advances in Acoustic Microscopy PDF

374 Pages·1995·10.16 MB·English
Save to my drive
Quick download
Download
Most books are stored in the elastic cloud where traffic is expensive. For this reason, we have a limit on daily download.

Preview Advances in Acoustic Microscopy

Advances in Acoustic Microscopy Volume 1 Advancesin Acoustic Microscopy Volume 1 Editedby Andrew Briggs University of Oxford Oxford, United Kingdom Springer Science+Business Media, LLC Llbrary of Congress Cataloglng-ln-Publlcatlon Data Advances in acoustic microscopy / edited by Andrew Briggs. p. cm. Includes bibliographical references and index. ISBN 978-1-4613-5762-9 ISBN 978-1-4615-1873-0 (eBook) DOI 10.1007/978-1-4615-1873-0 1. Materials--Microscopy. 2. Acoustic microscopy. r. Briggs. Andrew. TA417.23.A38 1994 620.1' 1274--dc20 95-3646 CIP ISBN 978-1-4613-5762-9 © 1995 Springer Science+Business Media New York Originally published by Plenum Press in 1995 Softcover reprint of the hardcover 1 st edition 10987654321 AII rights reserved No part of this book may be reproduced, stored in a retrieval system, or transmitted in any form or by any means, electronic, mechanical, photocopying, microfilming, recording, or otherwise, without written permission from the Publisher For Diana, Felicity, and Lizzie 'AKa Va aS' t'~ v KafJ' Uf.1&S' 7r {an v Kai t'~v ayti7r1] v, au 7ravOf.1al cuxaplauJv u7rep Uf.1wv. Having heard ofy our faith and love, I never cease to give thanks for you. Contributors Jan D. Achenbach, Center for Quality Engineering and Failure Prevention, Northwestern University, Evanston, Illinois 60208 Abdullah Atalar, Electrical and Electronics Engineering Department, Bilkent University, Ankara, Turkey M. Beghi, Dipartimento di Ingegneria Nucieare, Politecnico di Milano, Milano, Italy and Consorzio Interuniversitario Nazionale per la Fisica della Materia, Unita di Ricerca Milano Politecnico, Milano, Italy Jiirgen Bereiter-Hahn, Cinematic Cell Research Group, Zoological Institute, Johann Wolfgang Goethe University, Frankfurt am Maim, Germany C. E. Bottani, Dipartimento di Ingegneria Nucieare, Politecnico di Milano, Milano, Italy and Consorzio Interuniversitario Nazionale per la Fisica della Mate ria, Unita di Ricerca Milano Politecnico, Milano, Italy Ayhan Bozkurt, Electrical and Electronics Engineering Department, Bilkent University, Ankara, Turkey G. A. D. Briggs, Department of Materials, University of Oxford, Oxford, England Gabriel M. Crean, National Microelectronics Research Centre, University College, Lee Maltings, Cork, Ireland Colm M. Flannery, National Microelectronics Research Centre, University College, Lee Maltings, Cork, Ireland vii viii CONTRIBUTORS G. Ghislotti, Dipartimento di Ingegneria Nucleare, Politecnico di Milano, Mi lano, Italy Jin O. Kim, Center for Quality Engineering and Failure Prevention, Northwest ern University, Evanston, Illinois 60208 Dieter Knauss, Department of Materials, University of Oxford, Oxford, England Hayrettin Koymen, Electrical and Electronics Engineering Department, Bil kent University, Ankara, Turkey Yung-Chun Lee, Center for Quality Engineering and Failure Prevention, Northwestern University, Evanston, Illinois 60208 J. W. Martin, Department of Materials, University of Oxford, Oxford, England Paolo Mutti, Department of Materials, University of Oxford, Oxford, England; present address: Dipartimento di Ingegneria Nucleare, Politecnico di Milano, Milano, Italy Sean Cian 6 Mathuna, Power Electronics Ireland, National Microelectronics Research Centre, UCC, Ireland J. R. Sandercock, JRS, Zurich, Switzerland Zenon Sklar, Department of Materials, University of Oxford, Oxford, England N. C. Stoodley, Department of Materials, University of Oxford, Oxford, England Kazushi Yamanaka, Nanotechnology Division, Medical Engineering Labora tory, Ministry of International Trade and Industry, Namiki 1-2, Tsukaba, Ibar aki, Japan Goksenin Yaralioglu, Electrical and Electronics Engineering Department, Bil kent University, Ankara, Turkey T. Zhai, Department of Materials, University of Oxford, Oxford, England Preface In 1992 Acoustic Microscopy was published by Oxford University Press, in the series of Monographs on the Physics and Chemistry of Materials. Reviews appeared in the Journal of Microscopy [169 (1), 91] and in Contemporary Physics [33 (4), 296]. At the time of going to press, it seemed that the field of acoustic microscopy had settled down from the wonderful developments in resolution that had been seen in the late seventies and the early eighties and from the no less exciting developments in quantitative elastic measurements that had followed. One reviewer wrote, "The time is ripe for such a book, now that the expansion of the subject has perceptively slowed after it was detonated by Lemons and Quate." [A. Howie, Proc. RMS 27 (4), 280]. In many ways, this remains true. The basic design for both imaging and quantitative instruments is well-established; the upper frequency for routine imaging is the 2 GHz established by the Ernst Leitz scanning acoustic microscope (ELSAM) in 1984. For the most accurate V(z) measurements, the 225-MHz line-focus-beam lens, developed at Tohoku Univer sity a little before then, remains standard. The principles of the contrast theory have been confirmed by abundant experience; in particular the role of surface acoustic waves, such as Rayleigh waves, dominates the contrast in most high resolution studies of many materials. But in other ways, it has been delightful to observe the astonishing advances that have taken place in acoustic microscopy since the monograph was written. The purpose of this volume is to give an account of some of the key developments since then. Perhaps the fastest growing field of applications of acoustic microscopy is inspection using interior imaging at relatively modest frequencies. There is an analogy here with what is happening in scanning probe microscopy, where although many of the most scientifically dramatic pictures come from scanning tunneling microscopy (STM) imaging with atomic resolution in ultra high vacuum ix x PREFACE (UHV), nevertheless the greater quantity of industrial applicaton is at a lower resolution in air with atomic force microscopy. Similarly there is a large volume of industrial inspection by acoustic microscopy that does not require gigahertz frequencies and where Rayleigh waves are not excited. Such inspection uses focused probes and frequencies intermediate between high-resolution acoustic microscopy and conventional nondestructive testing. Indeed in many ways, it forms a bridge joining those two kinds of examination. Because of the widespread importance of this kind of inspection, Chapter I is written by members of the National Microelectronics Research Centre in Cork, which has extensive experience of using acoustic microscopy for industrial inspection of electronic packaging; Chapter I is extensively illustrated with examples of their own work. It has long been established that acoustic microscopy is a powerful technique for studying surface cracks. Enhanced contrast arises from the scattering of Rayleigh waves, which can strike a crack broadside and therefore be strongly scattered even when the crack opening is much less than the resolution of the microscope. The contrast theory for this has been worked out in detail and fairly thoroughly tested. It has also been known for some time that Rayleigh waves can be diffracted by the tip of a crack and this can be detected in time-resolved measurements. At much lower nondestructive testing (NDT) frequencies (typi cally 5 MHz), the depth of crack tips can be measured from the time of flight of the signal diffracted from the crack tip. There has been strong motivation to be able to make the same kind of measurement in an acoustic microscope to study the behavior of cracks at the earliest stages of fatigue. Chapter 2 describes how this has been achieved at Oxford University using nanosecond time resolution to measure the subsurface geometry of cracks in metals with a resolution of a few micro metres. The use of acoustic microscopy in biology demands perseverance, but re wards are great because of the possibility of directly imaging and measuring the elastic properties of cells and tissue. The Cinematic Cell Research Group at Frankfurt has been active in this field for many years, and Professor Bereiter-Hahn has produced an authoritative account, richly illustrated from his own experi ments. Chapter 3 is written from a cytologists point of view, with the particular hope that life scientists will find it expressed in their own language and addressing questions relevant to them. There are healthy warnings about constraints of sample preparation, and problems that remain to be solved to make wider applica tions possible, but there is also a great deal that has been thoroughly established and is now available for use in biological applications of acoustic microscopy. The applications to short cracks and biological cells both involve quantitative measurements, and the capability for quantitative elastic measurements has be come increasingly important in acoustic microscopy. The next three chapters are concerned with measuring various kinds of surface waves. Chapter 4, devoted xi PREFACE to a critical account of various lens geometries that can be used in acoustic microscopy, is written by Professor Atalar, one of the original pioneers of acoustic microscopy with Professor Quate at Stanford University. Professor Atalar pro duced one of the original formulations of V(z) theory and an early physical explanation of oscillations in terms of Rayleigh wave excitation. But V(z) mea surements are not the only way of measuring surface waves if they are dispersive, and the chapter includes a definitive account of a Lamb wave lens for making swept-frequency V(f) measurements. Chapters 5 and 6 give two highly professional accounts of how to analyze V(z) data from line focus-beam lenses to determine elastic properties of layered specimens. Chapter 5, which comes from the Center for Quality Engineering and Failure Prevention at Northwestern University, contains examples from their own work there on analyzing the elastic properties of coatings. There is a subtle difference between the methods of inversion in Chapters 5 and 6. In Chapter 5 inversion is performed by calculating V(z) for trial parameters of the sample, analyzing mode velocities in this calculated curve, and comparing to analyzed mode velocities in a V(z) curve measured experimentally from the sample. Trial parameters are then improved by iteration until good agreement is obtained between mode velocities from calculated and measured V(z) curves. A great strength of this procedure is that it explicitly focuses on modes that are most strongly excited in the acoustic microscope and therefore convey most information about the elastic structure of the sample. In the method of inversion in Chapter 6, velocities of acoustic modes in the surface are calculated directly from the trial elastic parameters of the specimen without calculating a V(z) curve as an intermediate step. In the theoretical model for doing this, elastic stress is explicitly included, so that it is possible to include stress among the parameters to be deduced from experimental V(z) data. The chapter contains a number of examples from the authors' laboratory at Oxford University. These include elastic constants of hydroxyapatite and ftuoroapatite, stresses and nonlinear elasticity in silicon, and changes in elastic constants of amorphous hydrogenated carbon coatings as a function of processing parameters. In many studies of elastic properties of surfaces, it is desirable to sample a layer considerably thinner than the 10 micro metres or so (depending on the Rayleigh velocity) probed in a standard line-focus-beam measurement at 225 MHz. This applies for example to measuring thin coatings and also fine subsurface damage. To address this, surface Brillouin-scattering spectroscopy has been devel oped at the Politecnico di Milano to be able to measure surface waves at higher frequencies. In surface Brillouin spectroscopy, light waves (photons) are scattered by elastic waves (phonons) in the surface of the sample. Two quantities are conserved: energy, so that the difference in frequency between the incident and scattered photons is equal to the frequency of a phonon created or annihilated

See more

The list of books you might like

Most books are stored in the elastic cloud where traffic is expensive. For this reason, we have a limit on daily download.