Advanced Nutrition : Macronutrients, Micronutrients, and Metabolism

552 Pages·2008·63.37 MB·English

by  Berdanier, Carolyn D., Berdanier, Lynnette A., Zempleni, Janos

ADVANCED
NUTRITION
Macronutrients,
Micronutrients,
and
Metabolism
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ADVANCED
NUTRITION
Macronutrients,
Micronutrients,
and
Metabolism
Carolyn D. Berdanier
Janos Zempleni
Boca Raton London New York
CRC Press is an imprint of the
Taylor & Francis Group, an informa business
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Library of Congress Cataloging‑in‑Publication Data
Berdanier, Carolyn D.
Advanced nutrition : macronutrients, micronutrients, and metabolism / Carolyn D. Berdanier, Janos
Zempleni.
p. ; cm.
Includes bibliographical references and index.
ISBN 978‑1‑4200‑5552‑8 (pbk : alk. paper)
1. Nutrition. 2. Diet in disease. 3. Metabolism. I. Zempleni, Janos. II. Title.
[DNLM: 1. Nutrition Physiology. 2. Dietary Carbohydrates‑‑metabolism. 3. Dietary
Fats‑‑metabolism. 4. Dietary Proteins‑‑metabolism. 5. Micronutrients‑‑metabolism. QU 145 B486a
2009]
QP141.B522 2009
612.3‑‑dc22 2008025557
Visit the Taylor & Francis Web site at
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and the CRC Press Web site at
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Contents
Preface..............................................................................................................................................xv
Acknowledgments...........................................................................................................................xvii
About.the.Authors............................................................................................................................xix
Chapter 1 Energy...........................................................................................................................1
Definition............................................................................................................................................1
Energy.Need.......................................................................................................................................3
Energy.Retained...............................................................................................................................10
Energetic.Efficiency..........................................................................................................................12
Utilizable.Energy..............................................................................................................................13
Thermogenesis..................................................................................................................................15
Abnormal.Energy.States...................................................................................................................16
Starvation.and.Undernutrition................................................................................................16
Protein-Energy.Malnutrition..................................................................................................18
Trauma.and.Energy.Needs.....................................................................................................19
Obesity....................................................................................................................................21
Body.Composition......................................................................................................21
Set.Point.Theory.in.Body.Weight.Regulation........................................................................32
Morbidity.of.Severely.Obese.People......................................................................................33
Treatment.of.Obesity..............................................................................................................34
Drugs.for.the.Treatment.of.Obesity............................................................................35
References.........................................................................................................................................37
Chapter 2 Regulation.of.Food.Intake...........................................................................................41
Psychological.Aspects.of.Food.Intake..............................................................................................41
Physiological.Aspects.of.Food.Intake...............................................................................................43
Sensory.Perception.of.Food....................................................................................................43
Appearance.............................................................................................................................44
Texture....................................................................................................................................44
Smell.(Olfaction).and.Taste.(Gustation).................................................................................45
Neuronal.Signals.for.Hunger.and.Satiety...............................................................................49
Anorexia.Nervosa.and.Bulimia..............................................................................................55
Abnormal.Appetite:.Pica........................................................................................................57
References.........................................................................................................................................58
Chapter 3 Nutritional.Biochemistry.............................................................................................61
Glycolysis..........................................................................................................................................61
Hexose.Monophosphate.Shunt..........................................................................................................64
Interconversion.of.Dietary.Sugars....................................................................................................66
Fructose..................................................................................................................................66
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vi Contents
Galactose................................................................................................................................67
Mannose.................................................................................................................................68
Glycogenesis.and.Glycogenolysis.....................................................................................................69
Gluconeogenesis...............................................................................................................................73
Cori.and.Alanine.Cycles...................................................................................................................75
Oxidative.Phosphorylation................................................................................................................78
Mitochondrial.Structure.and.Function.............................................................................................78
Respiration.and.the.Citric.Acid.Cycle..............................................................................................79
Respiratory.Chain.............................................................................................................................81
ATP.Synthesis...................................................................................................................................82
Uncoupling.Proteins.........................................................................................................................82
Metabolic.Control:.Oxidative.Phosphorylation................................................................................84
Oxidative.Phosphorylation................................................................................................................85
Fatty.Acid.Synthesis.........................................................................................................................87
Fatty.Acid.Elongation.......................................................................................................................90
Fatty.Acid.Desaturation....................................................................................................................91
Fatty.Acid.Esterification...................................................................................................................92
Fatty.Acid.Oxidation........................................................................................................................94
Cholesterol.Synthesis........................................................................................................................98
Amino.Acid.Catabolism.................................................................................................................100
Amino.Acid.Derivatives.................................................................................................................106
Creatine.Phosphate...............................................................................................................106
Choline.................................................................................................................................107
Polyamines...........................................................................................................................108
References.......................................................................................................................................108
Chapter 4 Cell.Cycle,.Life.Cycle...............................................................................................111
Cell.Structure.and.Function............................................................................................................111
Receptors..............................................................................................................................111
Signal.Systems......................................................................................................................115
Cell.Differentiation...............................................................................................................116
Apoptosis........................................................................................................................................119
Life.Cycle........................................................................................................................................123
Growth.and.Development.....................................................................................................124
Aging....................................................................................................................................125
References.......................................................................................................................................131
Chapter 5 Nutrigenomics.and.Epigenetics.................................................................................133
Gene.Expression.............................................................................................................................133
Gene.Structure................................................................................................................................134
Mutations.or.Polymorphisms...............................................................................................135
Synthesis.of.Purines.and.Pyrimidines.................................................................................138
Transcription........................................................................................................................138
Epigenetic.Control.of.Chromatin.Structure.and.Function...................................................146
Genetic.Diseases.of.Interest.to.Nutrition.............................................................................150
References.......................................................................................................................................155
Chapter 6 Protein.......................................................................................................................157
Amino.Acids...................................................................................................................................157
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Contents vii
Chemistry.............................................................................................................................157
Stereochemistry....................................................................................................................161
Acid-Based.Properties..........................................................................................................161
Reactions..............................................................................................................................162
Amino.Acid.Derivatives.......................................................................................................164
Creatine.Phosphate...................................................................................................164
Choline......................................................................................................................165
Polyamines................................................................................................................165
Peptides.................................................................................................................................165
Protein.Structure..................................................................................................................166
Protein.Denaturation............................................................................................................167
Classification.of.Proteins......................................................................................................167
Classification.by.Solubility.and.Prosthetic.Groups..................................................167
Glycoproteins............................................................................................................168
Lipoproteins..............................................................................................................169
Nucleoproteins..........................................................................................................169
Other.Conjugated.Proteins........................................................................................169
Classification.by.Function.........................................................................................169
Classification.by.Nutritive.Value..............................................................................169
Protein.Analysis........................................................................................................172
Biological.Value.of.Dietary.Protein.(BV)................................................................172
Protein.Use...........................................................................................................................177
Digestion...................................................................................................................177
Absorption................................................................................................................179
Metabolism...............................................................................................................181
Hormones:.Regulators.of.Protein.Metabolism.........................................................181
Protein.Turnover.......................................................................................................185
Protein.Degradation..................................................................................................185
Functions.of.Proteins................................................................................................187
Proteins.as.Enzymes.................................................................................................188
Proteins.as.Carriers.and.Receptors...........................................................................189
Proteins.as.Regulators.of.Water.Balance..................................................................189
Proteins.as.Biological.Buffers..................................................................................190
Proteins.as.Structural.Elements.and.Structural.Units..............................................192
Proteins.as.Lubricants...............................................................................................193
Proteins.in.the.Immune.System................................................................................194
Proteins.as.Signaling.Molecules...............................................................................194
Protein.Intake.Recommendations........................................................................................194
Age.............................................................................................................................195
Environmental.Temperature.....................................................................................196
Previous.Diet.............................................................................................................196
Physical.Activity.......................................................................................................197
Protein.Deficiency.....................................................................................................198
Kwashiorkor..............................................................................................................199
Marasmus..................................................................................................................199
Protein.and.Amino.Acid.Interactions.with.Other.Nutrients.....................................200
Vegetarian.Diets........................................................................................................202
Renal.Disease............................................................................................................203
Integration.of.the.Metabolic.Features.of.Protein.Nutrition......................................203
References.......................................................................................................................................206
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viii Contents
Chapter 7 Carbohydrates...........................................................................................................209
Classification...................................................................................................................................209
Structure.and.Nomenclature...........................................................................................................209
Monosaccharides..................................................................................................................209
Stereoisomeric.Forms...........................................................................................................210
Anomeric.Forms...................................................................................................................213
Oligosaccharides..................................................................................................................214
Disaccharides.......................................................................................................................214
Polysaccharides....................................................................................................................216
Storage.Polysaccharides.......................................................................................................216
Structural.Polysaccharides...................................................................................................217
Mucopolysaccharides...........................................................................................................218
Sources.of.Carbohydrate.................................................................................................................218
Digestion.and.Absorption...............................................................................................................220
Metabolism.....................................................................................................................................223
Glucose.Homeostasis............................................................................................................224
Abnormalities.in.the.Regulation.of.Glucose.Homeostasis:.Diabetes.Mellitus....................226
Prevalence.of.Diabetes.........................................................................................................227
The.Glucose.Tolerance.Test..................................................................................................228
Definition.of.Different.Types.of.Diabetes.Based.on.Management......................................229
Genetics.and.Diabetes..........................................................................................................230
Type.1.Diabetes.(Autoimmune.Diabetes).............................................................................231
Pancreatic.Islet.β Cell.Failure...............................................................................................232
Autoimmune.Disease...........................................................................................................232
Diabetes.Secondary.to.Viral.Infections...............................................................................234
Insulin.Release.....................................................................................................................234
Maturity-Onset.Diabetes.of.the.Young.(MODY).................................................................235
Genetic.Errors.in.Insulin.Structure......................................................................................236
Mitochondrial.Diabetes........................................................................................................237
Peripheral.Insulin.Resistance...............................................................................................237
Animal.Models.for.Humans.with.Type.2.Diabetes..............................................................239
Population.Surveys.Relating.Diet.to.Diabetes.....................................................................240
Prospective.Studies.Linking.Food.Intake.to.a.Reduction.in.Type.2.Diabetes.....................242
Dietary.Intervention.in.Diabetes..........................................................................................242
Other.Intervention.Studies...................................................................................................244
Overall.Management.of.Both.Type.1.and.Type.2.Diabetes.................................................245
Other.Health.Concerns.in.Carbohydrate.Nutrition..............................................................246
Fiber......................................................................................................................................246
Ethanol..................................................................................................................................247
Carbohydrate.Needs.............................................................................................................249
References.......................................................................................................................................250
Chapter 8 Lipids.........................................................................................................................257
Classification...................................................................................................................................257
Structure.and.Nomenclature...........................................................................................................258
Simple.Lipids........................................................................................................................258
Fatty.Acids................................................................................................................258
Triacyglycerols.(Fats.or.Triglycerides).....................................................................260
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Contents ix
Sources.of.Lipids............................................................................................................................261
Digestion.and.Absorption...............................................................................................................262
Transport.........................................................................................................................................266
Endogenous.Lipid.Transport................................................................................................269
Genetic.Basis.for.Lipoproteinemia.......................................................................................270
Nutrient–Gene.Interactions.in.Lipid.Transport....................................................................276
Function..........................................................................................................................................277
Essential.Fatty.Acids............................................................................................................278
Eicosanoid.Synthesis............................................................................................................281
Fatty.Acid.Autooxidation................................................................................................................285
Nutrition,.Inflammation,.and.Chronic.Disease..............................................................................290
The.Injury.Cycle...................................................................................................................290
Relationship.of.Inflammation.to.Chronic.Disease...............................................................293
Aging.and.Free.Radicals......................................................................................................295
Marine.Oils.and.Health.Concerns........................................................................................295
Lipids.and.Membrane.Function......................................................................................................297
Membrane.Phospholipid.Composition.................................................................................298
Disease.Effects.on.Membrane.Lipids...................................................................................298
Hormonal.Effects.on.Membrane.Lipids...............................................................................299
Age.Effects.on.Membrane.Lipids.........................................................................................300
Membrane.Function.............................................................................................................300
Cancer.and.Dietary.Fat...................................................................................................................301
Other.Diseases................................................................................................................................302
References.......................................................................................................................................302
Chapter 9 Fat-Soluble.Vitamins.................................................................................................309
Vitamin.A.......................................................................................................................................309
Structure.and.Nomenclature.................................................................................................309
Chemical.Properties.............................................................................................................314
Biopotency............................................................................................................................315
Sources.................................................................................................................................316
Metabolism.of.Vitamin.A....................................................................................................316
Functions..............................................................................................................................319
Hypervitaminosis.A.............................................................................................................325
Vitamin.Degradation.and.Excretion....................................................................................325
Need......................................................................................................................................325
Vitamin.D.......................................................................................................................................326
Structure.and.Nomenclature.................................................................................................327
Physical/Chemical.Properties..............................................................................................329
Biopotency............................................................................................................................330
Methods.of.Assay.................................................................................................................330
International.Units.(IU)........................................................................................................332
Metabolism...........................................................................................................................333
Absorption................................................................................................................333
Transport...................................................................................................................333
Metabolism...............................................................................................................334
Function................................................................................................................................336
Regulation.of.Serum.Calcium.Levels...................................................................................337
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