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ADVANCED NUTRITION Macronutrients, Micronutrients, and Metabolism 55526.indb 1 7/2/08 5:37:36 AM 55526.indb 2 7/2/08 5:37:36 AM ADVANCED NUTRITION Macronutrients, Micronutrients, and Metabolism Carolyn D. Berdanier Janos Zempleni Boca Raton London New York CRC Press is an imprint of the Taylor & Francis Group, an informa business 55526.indb 3 7/2/08 5:37:36 AM CRC Press Taylor & Francis Group 6000 Broken Sound Parkway NW, Suite 300 Boca Raton, FL 33487‑2742 © 2009 by Taylor & Francis Group, LLC CRC Press is an imprint of Taylor & Francis Group, an Informa business No claim to original U.S. Government works Printed in the United States of America on acid‑free paper 10 9 8 7 6 5 4 3 2 1 International Standard Book Number‑13: 978‑1‑4200‑5552‑8 (Softcover) This book contains information obtained from authentic and highly regarded sources. Reasonable efforts have been made to publish reliable data and information, but the author and publisher cannot assume responsibility for the valid‑ ity of all materials or the consequences of their use. The authors and publishers have attempted to trace the copyright holders of all material reproduced in this publication and apologize to copyright holders if permission to publish in this form has not been obtained. If any copyright material has not been acknowledged please write and let us know so we may rectify in any future reprint. Except as permitted under U.S. Copyright Law, no part of this book may be reprinted, reproduced, transmitted, or uti‑ lized in any form by any electronic, mechanical, or other means, now known or hereafter invented, including photocopy‑ ing, microfilming, and recording, or in any information storage or retrieval system, without written permission from the publishers. For permission to photocopy or use material electronically from this work, please access www.copyright.com (http:// www.copyright.com/) or contact the Copyright Clearance Center, Inc. (CCC), 222 Rosewood Drive, Danvers, MA 01923, 978‑750‑8400. CCC is a not‑for‑profit organization that provides licenses and registration for a variety of users. For orga‑ nizations that have been granted a photocopy license by the CCC, a separate system of payment has been arranged. Trademark Notice: Product or corporate names may be trademarks or registered trademarks, and are used only for identification and explanation without intent to infringe. Library of Congress Cataloging‑in‑Publication Data Berdanier, Carolyn D. Advanced nutrition : macronutrients, micronutrients, and metabolism / Carolyn D. Berdanier, Janos Zempleni. p. ; cm. Includes bibliographical references and index. ISBN 978‑1‑4200‑5552‑8 (pbk : alk. paper) 1. Nutrition. 2. Diet in disease. 3. Metabolism. I. Zempleni, Janos. II. Title. [DNLM: 1. Nutrition Physiology. 2. Dietary Carbohydrates‑‑metabolism. 3. Dietary Fats‑‑metabolism. 4. Dietary Proteins‑‑metabolism. 5. Micronutrients‑‑metabolism. QU 145 B486a 2009] QP141.B522 2009 612.3‑‑dc22 2008025557 Visit the Taylor & Francis Web site at http://www.taylorandfrancis.com and the CRC Press Web site at http://www.crcpress.com 55526.indb 4 7/2/08 5:37:36 AM Contents Preface..............................................................................................................................................xv Acknowledgments...........................................................................................................................xvii About.the.Authors............................................................................................................................xix Chapter 1 Energy...........................................................................................................................1 Definition............................................................................................................................................1 Energy.Need.......................................................................................................................................3 Energy.Retained...............................................................................................................................10 Energetic.Efficiency..........................................................................................................................12 Utilizable.Energy..............................................................................................................................13 Thermogenesis..................................................................................................................................15 Abnormal.Energy.States...................................................................................................................16 Starvation.and.Undernutrition................................................................................................16 Protein-Energy.Malnutrition..................................................................................................18 Trauma.and.Energy.Needs.....................................................................................................19 Obesity....................................................................................................................................21 Body.Composition......................................................................................................21 Set.Point.Theory.in.Body.Weight.Regulation........................................................................32 Morbidity.of.Severely.Obese.People......................................................................................33 Treatment.of.Obesity..............................................................................................................34 Drugs.for.the.Treatment.of.Obesity............................................................................35 References.........................................................................................................................................37 Chapter 2 Regulation.of.Food.Intake...........................................................................................41 Psychological.Aspects.of.Food.Intake..............................................................................................41 Physiological.Aspects.of.Food.Intake...............................................................................................43 Sensory.Perception.of.Food....................................................................................................43 Appearance.............................................................................................................................44 Texture....................................................................................................................................44 Smell.(Olfaction).and.Taste.(Gustation).................................................................................45 Neuronal.Signals.for.Hunger.and.Satiety...............................................................................49 Anorexia.Nervosa.and.Bulimia..............................................................................................55 Abnormal.Appetite:.Pica........................................................................................................57 References.........................................................................................................................................58 Chapter 3 Nutritional.Biochemistry.............................................................................................61 Glycolysis..........................................................................................................................................61 Hexose.Monophosphate.Shunt..........................................................................................................64 Interconversion.of.Dietary.Sugars....................................................................................................66 Fructose..................................................................................................................................66 55526.indb 5 7/2/08 5:37:37 AM vi Contents Galactose................................................................................................................................67 Mannose.................................................................................................................................68 Glycogenesis.and.Glycogenolysis.....................................................................................................69 Gluconeogenesis...............................................................................................................................73 Cori.and.Alanine.Cycles...................................................................................................................75 Oxidative.Phosphorylation................................................................................................................78 Mitochondrial.Structure.and.Function.............................................................................................78 Respiration.and.the.Citric.Acid.Cycle..............................................................................................79 Respiratory.Chain.............................................................................................................................81 ATP.Synthesis...................................................................................................................................82 Uncoupling.Proteins.........................................................................................................................82 Metabolic.Control:.Oxidative.Phosphorylation................................................................................84 Oxidative.Phosphorylation................................................................................................................85 Fatty.Acid.Synthesis.........................................................................................................................87 Fatty.Acid.Elongation.......................................................................................................................90 Fatty.Acid.Desaturation....................................................................................................................91 Fatty.Acid.Esterification...................................................................................................................92 Fatty.Acid.Oxidation........................................................................................................................94 Cholesterol.Synthesis........................................................................................................................98 Amino.Acid.Catabolism.................................................................................................................100 Amino.Acid.Derivatives.................................................................................................................106 Creatine.Phosphate...............................................................................................................106 Choline.................................................................................................................................107 Polyamines...........................................................................................................................108 References.......................................................................................................................................108 Chapter 4 Cell.Cycle,.Life.Cycle...............................................................................................111 Cell.Structure.and.Function............................................................................................................111 Receptors..............................................................................................................................111 Signal.Systems......................................................................................................................115 Cell.Differentiation...............................................................................................................116 Apoptosis........................................................................................................................................119 Life.Cycle........................................................................................................................................123 Growth.and.Development.....................................................................................................124 Aging....................................................................................................................................125 References.......................................................................................................................................131 Chapter 5 Nutrigenomics.and.Epigenetics.................................................................................133 Gene.Expression.............................................................................................................................133 Gene.Structure................................................................................................................................134 Mutations.or.Polymorphisms...............................................................................................135 Synthesis.of.Purines.and.Pyrimidines.................................................................................138 Transcription........................................................................................................................138 Epigenetic.Control.of.Chromatin.Structure.and.Function...................................................146 Genetic.Diseases.of.Interest.to.Nutrition.............................................................................150 References.......................................................................................................................................155 Chapter 6 Protein.......................................................................................................................157 Amino.Acids...................................................................................................................................157 55526.indb 6 7/2/08 5:37:37 AM Contents vii Chemistry.............................................................................................................................157 Stereochemistry....................................................................................................................161 Acid-Based.Properties..........................................................................................................161 Reactions..............................................................................................................................162 Amino.Acid.Derivatives.......................................................................................................164 Creatine.Phosphate...................................................................................................164 Choline......................................................................................................................165 Polyamines................................................................................................................165 Peptides.................................................................................................................................165 Protein.Structure..................................................................................................................166 Protein.Denaturation............................................................................................................167 Classification.of.Proteins......................................................................................................167 Classification.by.Solubility.and.Prosthetic.Groups..................................................167 Glycoproteins............................................................................................................168 Lipoproteins..............................................................................................................169 Nucleoproteins..........................................................................................................169 Other.Conjugated.Proteins........................................................................................169 Classification.by.Function.........................................................................................169 Classification.by.Nutritive.Value..............................................................................169 Protein.Analysis........................................................................................................172 Biological.Value.of.Dietary.Protein.(BV)................................................................172 Protein.Use...........................................................................................................................177 Digestion...................................................................................................................177 Absorption................................................................................................................179 Metabolism...............................................................................................................181 Hormones:.Regulators.of.Protein.Metabolism.........................................................181 Protein.Turnover.......................................................................................................185 Protein.Degradation..................................................................................................185 Functions.of.Proteins................................................................................................187 Proteins.as.Enzymes.................................................................................................188 Proteins.as.Carriers.and.Receptors...........................................................................189 Proteins.as.Regulators.of.Water.Balance..................................................................189 Proteins.as.Biological.Buffers..................................................................................190 Proteins.as.Structural.Elements.and.Structural.Units..............................................192 Proteins.as.Lubricants...............................................................................................193 Proteins.in.the.Immune.System................................................................................194 Proteins.as.Signaling.Molecules...............................................................................194 Protein.Intake.Recommendations........................................................................................194 Age.............................................................................................................................195 Environmental.Temperature.....................................................................................196 Previous.Diet.............................................................................................................196 Physical.Activity.......................................................................................................197 Protein.Deficiency.....................................................................................................198 Kwashiorkor..............................................................................................................199 Marasmus..................................................................................................................199 Protein.and.Amino.Acid.Interactions.with.Other.Nutrients.....................................200 Vegetarian.Diets........................................................................................................202 Renal.Disease............................................................................................................203 Integration.of.the.Metabolic.Features.of.Protein.Nutrition......................................203 References.......................................................................................................................................206 55526.indb 7 7/2/08 5:37:38 AM viii Contents Chapter 7 Carbohydrates...........................................................................................................209 Classification...................................................................................................................................209 Structure.and.Nomenclature...........................................................................................................209 Monosaccharides..................................................................................................................209 Stereoisomeric.Forms...........................................................................................................210 Anomeric.Forms...................................................................................................................213 Oligosaccharides..................................................................................................................214 Disaccharides.......................................................................................................................214 Polysaccharides....................................................................................................................216 Storage.Polysaccharides.......................................................................................................216 Structural.Polysaccharides...................................................................................................217 Mucopolysaccharides...........................................................................................................218 Sources.of.Carbohydrate.................................................................................................................218 Digestion.and.Absorption...............................................................................................................220 Metabolism.....................................................................................................................................223 Glucose.Homeostasis............................................................................................................224 Abnormalities.in.the.Regulation.of.Glucose.Homeostasis:.Diabetes.Mellitus....................226 Prevalence.of.Diabetes.........................................................................................................227 The.Glucose.Tolerance.Test..................................................................................................228 Definition.of.Different.Types.of.Diabetes.Based.on.Management......................................229 Genetics.and.Diabetes..........................................................................................................230 Type.1.Diabetes.(Autoimmune.Diabetes).............................................................................231 Pancreatic.Islet.β Cell.Failure...............................................................................................232 Autoimmune.Disease...........................................................................................................232 Diabetes.Secondary.to.Viral.Infections...............................................................................234 Insulin.Release.....................................................................................................................234 Maturity-Onset.Diabetes.of.the.Young.(MODY).................................................................235 Genetic.Errors.in.Insulin.Structure......................................................................................236 Mitochondrial.Diabetes........................................................................................................237 Peripheral.Insulin.Resistance...............................................................................................237 Animal.Models.for.Humans.with.Type.2.Diabetes..............................................................239 Population.Surveys.Relating.Diet.to.Diabetes.....................................................................240 Prospective.Studies.Linking.Food.Intake.to.a.Reduction.in.Type.2.Diabetes.....................242 Dietary.Intervention.in.Diabetes..........................................................................................242 Other.Intervention.Studies...................................................................................................244 Overall.Management.of.Both.Type.1.and.Type.2.Diabetes.................................................245 Other.Health.Concerns.in.Carbohydrate.Nutrition..............................................................246 Fiber......................................................................................................................................246 Ethanol..................................................................................................................................247 Carbohydrate.Needs.............................................................................................................249 References.......................................................................................................................................250 Chapter 8 Lipids.........................................................................................................................257 Classification...................................................................................................................................257 Structure.and.Nomenclature...........................................................................................................258 Simple.Lipids........................................................................................................................258 Fatty.Acids................................................................................................................258 Triacyglycerols.(Fats.or.Triglycerides).....................................................................260 55526.indb 8 7/2/08 5:37:38 AM Contents ix Sources.of.Lipids............................................................................................................................261 Digestion.and.Absorption...............................................................................................................262 Transport.........................................................................................................................................266 Endogenous.Lipid.Transport................................................................................................269 Genetic.Basis.for.Lipoproteinemia.......................................................................................270 Nutrient–Gene.Interactions.in.Lipid.Transport....................................................................276 Function..........................................................................................................................................277 Essential.Fatty.Acids............................................................................................................278 Eicosanoid.Synthesis............................................................................................................281 Fatty.Acid.Autooxidation................................................................................................................285 Nutrition,.Inflammation,.and.Chronic.Disease..............................................................................290 The.Injury.Cycle...................................................................................................................290 Relationship.of.Inflammation.to.Chronic.Disease...............................................................293 Aging.and.Free.Radicals......................................................................................................295 Marine.Oils.and.Health.Concerns........................................................................................295 Lipids.and.Membrane.Function......................................................................................................297 Membrane.Phospholipid.Composition.................................................................................298 Disease.Effects.on.Membrane.Lipids...................................................................................298 Hormonal.Effects.on.Membrane.Lipids...............................................................................299 Age.Effects.on.Membrane.Lipids.........................................................................................300 Membrane.Function.............................................................................................................300 Cancer.and.Dietary.Fat...................................................................................................................301 Other.Diseases................................................................................................................................302 References.......................................................................................................................................302 Chapter 9 Fat-Soluble.Vitamins.................................................................................................309 Vitamin.A.......................................................................................................................................309 Structure.and.Nomenclature.................................................................................................309 Chemical.Properties.............................................................................................................314 Biopotency............................................................................................................................315 Sources.................................................................................................................................316 Metabolism.of.Vitamin.A....................................................................................................316 Functions..............................................................................................................................319 Hypervitaminosis.A.............................................................................................................325 Vitamin.Degradation.and.Excretion....................................................................................325 Need......................................................................................................................................325 Vitamin.D.......................................................................................................................................326 Structure.and.Nomenclature.................................................................................................327 Physical/Chemical.Properties..............................................................................................329 Biopotency............................................................................................................................330 Methods.of.Assay.................................................................................................................330 International.Units.(IU)........................................................................................................332 Metabolism...........................................................................................................................333 Absorption................................................................................................................333 Transport...................................................................................................................333 Metabolism...............................................................................................................334 Function................................................................................................................................336 Regulation.of.Serum.Calcium.Levels...................................................................................337 55526.indb 9 7/2/08 5:37:38 AM

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