Administrative Law

375 Pages·7·49.039 MB·English

by  Satyaranjan Purushottam Sathe

Administrative Law
First edition 1970
Second edition 1974
Third edition 1979
Fourth edition 1981
Fifth edition 1991 Seventh Edition
First reprint (With Supp/) 1994
Second reprint (With Suppl of 1994) 1996
Sixth edition 1998
Seventh edition 2004
First reprint 2006
Second reprint 2007
Third reprint 2008
Fourth reprint 2009
F(fth reprint 2010
SP SATHE
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© SP Sathe
The Memory
All rights reserved. No part of this publication may be reproduced or transmitted in
Aba and Tai
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SP Sathe, Administrative Law, 7th edn, F(fth Reprint, 2012.
ISBN: 978-81-8038-051-8
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Preface to the Seventh Edition
Every new edition of a book gives to its author an opportunity to correct
past mistakes and improve upon his previous work. I am also experiencing
such an excitement on the eve of this 7th edition of Administrative Law. The
book appeared in about not more than 300 pages in 1970 and was well
received. Its fifth edition in 1991 was a substantially revised edition and
further revision took place in its sixth edition in 1998. I was fortunate to get
the blessings of my seniors, Dr AT Markose and Justice PB Mukharji with
whom I have had the pleasure of working on a project on Delegated
Legislation at the Indian Law Institute (1958-60). My interest in
administrative law dates back to the years of my work at the Law Institute.
This edition is not only substantially revised and re-edited but also
contains several chapters which were written afresh. There are new
additions such as the material on regulatory authorities, which have come
up since India moved from command economy to market economy.
Administrative law is a fast growing subject and has grown not only through
judicial decisions but also through new legislation. While administrative
law in the earlier period was concerned more with the powers of the State
and its authorities, today it is concerned more with the powers of the people
and opportunities for their participation in governance. Governance has to
be transparent, participatory and accountable. Administrative law subsenres
all these ends. More and more decisions are required to be taken after
hearing the persons likely to be affected, public hearings are also required
where policy decisions regarding development are to be taken. Judicial
review has become more penetrating and participatory. Discretionary
powers are no longer the safe refuge for administrative arbitrariness. There
has been much more penetrating judicial inquiry into how discretionary
powers are used and the State and its functionaries have been made liable
for the acts which cause harm to the people. While the Freedom of
Information Act has been passed by Parliament and its coming into force is
awaited, legislation for the protection of the whistle blowers will have to
be on the agenda of the new government which came into office in May
2004. The Supreme Court of India has recognised several rights of the people
through its decisions and has facilitated access of the common man to judicial
remedies. New control mechanisms such as Lokpal are likely to be instituted.
Although corruption and criminalisation of politics have increased, civil
society's concern for good governance is also increasing. Ultimately
Preface to the Seventh Edition
administrative law requires a strong culture of legalism. The fact that several
civil society action groups are taking up cudgels against illegal behaviour
of the authorities and using legal methods for that purpose is indicative of
the growth of such culture.
I am indebted to several persons who have helped me in doing this work.
Preface to the Sixth Edition
My colleague at the Institute of Advanced Legal Studies Sathya Narayan
has been the most dependable ally for facilitating access to various facilities.
Swati Kulkarni and Manjusha Cujar helped in preparing the table of cases,
Administrative law is an ever-expanding subject in a developing society.
proof reading the manuscript and supervising the checking of citations.
During the first phase of Indian development, the emphasis was on the
The following students of the ILS Law College checked citations: Atulesh
controlled economy with public sector being at the commanding heights.
Kumar, Cyble Soans, Dharma Lakshmi C, Deepti Mohan and Kajal Kohli.
Since 1991, the governments have been pursuing the policy of liberalisation
Aparna Tatke provided secretarial assistance while Shubhangi Puranik
in which the State is supposed to be mainly concerned with infrastructural
provided computer assistance. Sikha Bhattacharya and Manjiri Joshi assisted
development leaving ordinary business and trade to private enterprise.
in accessing relevant materials from the Library of the ILS Law College.
This also means that the State will provide the regulatory network for
Suneeti Rao, former Librarian of the ILS Law College Library and an able
ensuring that private enterprise functions in consonance with public interest.
linguist did language editing which significantly improved the quality of
A network of regulatory agencies, free from government control, but
the book. Principal Vaijayanti Joshi provided institutional support. I thank
responsible to Parliament/Legislature which ensures that various
each of them for their generosity. Despite their help, there might be mistakes
competing enterprises compete for excellence without jeopardising public
and shortcomings in the book for which I alone am entirely responsible. I
interest is a condition precedent for the success of development. With the
also thank LexisNexis Butterworths India for bringing out this edition in
creation of each of such agencies, there is a substantial addition to the corpus
such a short time. I am particularly grateful to Ms Ambika Nair for her
of administrative law. The decisions of each of such agencies should be
interest in facilitating the publication and Ms Banshi Talukdar (both of
transparent and could be predicted with reasonable amount of certainty.
LexisNexis Butterworths India) for editing and seeing the book through
Those decisions are also subject to judicial review and those agencies are
the press.
also going to be subjected to legislative supervision. We already have such
Last but not the least, I thank my wife Vijaya for her support to me in all
regulatory agencies such as the Telecom Regulatory Authority (TRAI) and
my endeavours.
another similar agency for the power sector. Many more such agencies are
likely to be set up in the near future. Market economy cannot achieve its
Pune, SP SATHE
desired ends unless there exists an efficient, dynamic and forward-looking
May 2004
regulatory system. Administrative law is bound to grow in size as well as
quality in the coming decades.
While preparing this edition (6th), care is taken to update the book with
all the recent developments including the case law and the legislation. The
book has been substantially rewritten, re-edited and added. This book was
intended to serve the needs of the students of Law pursuing their studies
for LLB and LLM examinations. It was also intended to provide a good
understanding of the principles of administrative law to practising lawyers.
That remains the dominant purpose even of this edition. Therefore, care
has been taken to maintain the size of the book. Unnecessary repetitions
and overlaps have been avoided as far as possible. It is for the readers to
say how far my effort has been successful.
Several friends have helped me directly and indirectly in my effort. Dr
Jaya Saga de read the drafts and gave useful suggestions. Ms Aparna Tatke
provided the secretarial assistance readily and efficiently; Ms Shubhangi
Puranik provided the computer assistance and Ms Manjiri Joshi facilitated
Preface to the Sixth Edition
access to library materials. Checking of footnotes and case citations was
done by Ms Swati Kulkarni and Ms Bharati Sawant. Ms Swati Kulkarni
and Ms Shubhangi Puranik had to work for long hours for preparing the
Table of Cases, which they did cheerfully. I thank all of them for their help,
which has doubtless made things far more easier for me. I would like to Contents
express my appreciation for the editorial assistance provided by Ms Aruna
B Venkat of Butterworths.
I also thank Butterworths India for bringing out the book in shortest
possible time.
Preface to the Seventh Edition .................................................................................... vii
Pune SP SATHE Preface to the Sixth Edition ......................................................................................... ix
7 September 1998 Contents ....................................................................................................................... xi
Table of Cases ............................................................................................................ xxv
CHAPTER 1
Introduction
1. Development Strategy: Public Sector at the Commanding
Heights .............................................................................................................. 2
2. State, Government and Administration ....................................................... 6
3. Meaning of Administrative Law ................................................................... 7
4. Administrative Law and Rule of Law .......................................................... 8
5. Dicey's Thesis Critically Examined .............................................................. 9
6. Sources of Administrative Law ................................................................... 12
7. Development of Administrative Law in India .......................................... 14
8. Patterns of Legislation .................................................................................. 14
(a) Licensing .................................................................................................. 14
(b) Public Health and Morality ..................................................................... 14
(c) State Regulation of Labour, Transport and Commerce ........................... 15
(d) Economic Regulation ................................................................................ 15
(e) Second World War ................................................................................... 16
(j) After the War Ended ................................................................................ 16
(g) Under the Constitution ............................................................................ 16
9. The Indian Constitution: An Outline ......................................................... 17
10. Parliamentary Government ......................................................................... 18
11. The Local Self Governments ........................................................................ 20
12. Separation of Powers .................................................................................... 20
13. Executive Function: Scope ............................................................................ 24
CHAPTER 2
Legislative Powers of the Administration
1. Legislative Process ........................................................................................ 27
2. Executive Legislation: Ordinance-making Power .................................... 28
Contents Contents
3. Re-promulgation of Ordinances .................................................................. 29 7. Consultation with Experts ..................................... , ..................................... 72
4. Delegated Legislation: Definition and Forms ........................................... 29 8. Parliamentary Control of Delegated Legislation ...................................... 73
5. Reasons for the Growth of Delegated Legislation .................................... 31 9. Pre-enactment Control .................................................................................. 73
(a) Pressure upon Parliamentary Time ......................................................... 32 10. Post-enactment Control ................................................................................ 74
(b) Filling in Details of Legislation ............................................................... 32 11. Procedure for Laying before the House ..................................................... 74
(c) The Need for Flexibility ............................................................................ 32
12. Committee on Subordinate Legislation on Uniformity ........................... 75
(d) Administration through Administrative Agencies .................................. 32
13. Need for Uniform Provision for Laying .................................................... 76
(e) Meeting Emergency Situations ................................................................ 33
14. Laying of Subordinate Legislation before Legislature ............................. 78
6. Types of Delegated Legislation ................................................................... 33
(a) Power to bring an Act into Operation ..................................................... 33 15. Central Statutes Delegating Power to the State Governments ............... 79
(b) Conditional Legislation ............................ , ............................................... 35 16. Indirect Supervision by Parliament through the Scrutiny
(c) Power to Fill in Details ............................................................................ 36 Committee: England ..................................................................................... 79
(d) Powers to Remove Difficulties ................................................................. 37 17. Committee on Subordinate Legislation: India .......................................... 80
7. Limitations upon Delegation of Legislative Power .................................. 37 18. Committee of the Lok Sabha ........................................................................ 80
8. The American Experience ............................................................................ 37 19. Committee of the Rajya Sabha ..................................................................... 82
9. The Privy Council and Delegated Legislation .......................................... 39 20. Scope of Committee's Powers ...................................................................... 82
10. Delegation held Invalid by the Federal Court .......................................... 41 21. Recommendations of the Committee on Subordinate
11. Delegation under the Indian Constitution ................................................ 42 Legislation ...................................................................................................... 85
12. Essential Legislative Function: Meaning ................................................... 44 22. Working of the Committee ........................................................................... 86
13. Power to Make Modifications ...................................................................... 46 23. Judicial Review of Delegated Legislation .................................................. 87
14. Delegation of Power to Repeal .................................................................... 47 24. Scope of the Rule-making Power ................................................................ 87
15. Power to Remove Difficulties ...................................................................... 47 25. Rules held Intra Vires ................................................................................... 89
16. Power to Include and Exclude ..................................................................... 48 26. Tariffs, Taxes etc ............................................................................................ 94
17. Delegation of Fiscal Power ........................................................................... 49 27. Subordinate Legislation: Mala Fide? .......................................................... 94
18. Rates of Taxation ........................................................................................... 53 28. Sub-delegation ............................................................................................... 94
19. Other Constitutional Objections to Delegation ......................................... 54 29. Intra Vires the Constitution ......................................................................... 95
20. Excessive Delegation and Article 14 of the Constitution ........................ 55 30. Delegated Legislation held Ultra Vires ...................................................... 97
21. Sub-delegation of Legislative Power .......................................................... 56 (a) Ultra Vires the Enabling Act ................................................................... 97
(b) Ultra Vires the Constitution .................................................................. 100
CHAPTER 3 31. Subordinate Legislation: Whether Protected by the
Ninth Schedule of the Constitution .......................................................... 106
Control of Delegated Legislation
32. Reasonableness ............................................................................................ 107
1. Publication of Delegated Legislation .......................................................... 60 33. Delegated Legislation: Parameters of Unreasonableness ...................... 108
(a) England .................................................................................................... 60 34. Retrospective effect of Subordinate Legislation ...................................... 111
(b) The United States of America .................................................................. 61 35. Delegated Legislation: Procedure Ultra Vires ......................................... 114
(c) India .......................................................................................................... 61
36. Publication of Subordinate Legislation .................................................... 114
2. Committee on Subordinate Legislation: Recommendations .................. 63
37. Previous Publication ................................................................................... 115
3. Publication remains Unsatisfactory ............................................................ 66
(a) Failure to Consult or to Obtain Approval ............................................. 118
4. Retrospective Operation ............................................................................... 66 (b) Effect of Failure to Publish ..................................................................... 118
5. Publication of Sub-delegated Legislation .................................................. 67 (c) Effect of Failure to Lay the Rules before Legislature .............................. 120
6. Previous Publication ..................................................................................... 68 38. Finality Clauses in the Enabling Acts ....................................................... 121
(a) England .................................................................................................... 68 39. Administrative Instructions or Directions: Nature ................................ 122
(b) The United States of America .................................................................. 69 40. Status of Administrative Instructions ....................................................... 122
(c) India .......................................................................................................... 69
xii xiii
Contents Contents
41. Administrative Instructions do not have the Force of Law .................. 126 25. Caste Certificates ......................................................................................... 177
42. Administrative Instructions: When considered 26. Preventive Detention .................................................................................. 178
to be Binding? .............................................................................................. 128 27. Concessions in Tariffs ................................................................................. 178
43. Discretion Regulated by Executive Instructions ..................................... 129 28. Reference of an Industrial Dispute for Adjudication ............................. 178
44. Concluding Remarks .................................................................................. 131 29. University Appointments ........................................................................... 179
30. Impeachment/Removal of Constitutional Functionaries ..................... 179
CHAPTER 4 31. Removal of a Judge: Nature of the Process ............................................. 181
32. Doctrine of Legitimate Expectation .......................................................... 184
Classification of Administrative Action
1. Legislative Function .................................................................................... 134 CHAPTERS
2. Hearing and Delegated Legislation .......................................................... 135
Fair Hearing: Rules of Natural Justice
3. Hearing and Legislative Function ............................................................ 136
4. Extending the Limits of a Municipal Authority ..................................... 137 1. Rules of Natural Justice: Application ....................................................... 187
5. Conditional Legislation: When is a Hearing Required? ........................ 138 2. Principles of Natural Justice as Parameters of Fairness ........................ 188
6. Imposition of Tax ......................................................................................... 139 3. Natural Justice: No Rigid Mould-Flexibility ......................................... 189
7. Judicial Function .......................................................................................... 140 4. Fair Hearing: Basic Postulates ................................................................... 191
8. Judicial, Quasi-judicial and Administrative Function (a) Nemo Judex In Causa Sua: Interest or Bias ........................................... 192
Distinguished ............................................................................................... 141 (b) Audi Alteram Partem: Fair Hearing by Administrative
9. Difficulty of Classification .......................................................................... 142 Authorities .............................................................................................. 209
10. Fair Hearing as a Constitutional Requirement ....................................... 143 5. Hearing ......................................................................................................... 217
11. When is an Authority required to Act Judicially? .................................. 145 6. When is Oral Hearing Required? .............................................................. 217
12. Ridge v Baldwin: Judicial Activism of the Sixties ..................................... 147 (a) Service Matters ...................................................................................... 219
(b) Actions against Professionals ................................................................. 222
13. AK Kraipak v India ........................................................................................ 148
(c) Preventive Detention Cases ................................................................... 223
14. Fair Hearing in Administrative Actions .................................................. 150
(d) Educational Institutions ........................................................................ 223
15. Civil Consequences ..................................................................................... 151
(e) Tax Matters ............................................................................................ 224
16. Duty to Act Judicially ................................................................................. 152
7. Right to Cross-examine .............................................................................. 225
(a) Lis Inter Partes ....................................................................................... 152
8. Documents to be made Available ............................................................. 227
(b) Provision for Administrative Appeal ..................................................... 155
9. Preventive Detention .................................................................................. 228
(c) A Body Possessing Powers of a Court ................................................... 157
10. Preliminary Report: Availability ............................................................... 228
(d) Adverse Effect on Rights or Interests ..................................................... 157
11. Service Matters ............................................................................................. 230
17. Civil Servants ............................................................................................... 160
12. Forty-second Constitutional Amendment and the
(a) Selection for Civil Service ...................................................................... 160
(b) Dismissal, Removal or Reduction in Rank ............................................ 161 Right to Report ............................................................................................. 231
(c) Dispensing with the Inquiry .................................................................. 162 (a) When must Report be made Available? ................................................. 232
(d) Actions other than Dismissal, Removal or Reduction (b) Preventive Detention ............................................................................. 233
in Rank ................................................................................................... 163 13. Right to Hearing as Aspect of Right to
Information ................................................................................................... 233
18. Employees other than Civil Servants ....................................................... 166
14. Representation by Lawyer ........................ _. .............................................. 234
19. Actions held to be Quasi-judicial .............................................................. 166
Preventive Detention .................................................................................... 234
20. Licensing: Is it a Quasi-judicial Function? ............................................... 169
15. Civil Service Cases ....................................................................................... 235
21. Largesse or Privileges ................................................................................. 172
16. Post-decisional Hearing .............................................................................. 235
22. Actions held to be Administrative do not require Hearing .................. 173
17. Reasoned Decisions ..................................................................................... 238
23. Pre-trial and Post-trial Criminal Law Processes ..................................... 175
18. Communication of Reasons ....................................................................... 241
24. Property Matters .......................................................................................... 177
xiv xv
Contents
Contents
(c) Tribunal distinguished from Court ........................................................ 292
19. Effect of Non-compliance with Principles of
(d) Tribunal under Constitution ................................................................. 293
Natural Justice .............................................................................................. 242
(e) Identifying Tribunals ............................................................................. 295
~: ~~:::~~~~.:::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::: ~:~
CHAPTER 6
Judicial Review of Tribunals and Quasi-Judicial Authorities 4. Appeals ......................................................................................................... 298
5. Hierarchy of Tribunals ............................................................................... 299
1. Court Not to Act as Appellate Court ........................................................ 250
6. Main Features ............................................................................................... 300
2. Judicial Review: Constitutional Framework ........................................... 253
7. Administrative Tribunals Act 1985 ........................................................... 301
3. Doctrine of Ultra Vires ................................................................................ 253
(a) Establishment and Composition ............................................................. 301
4. Causes of Lack of Jurisdiction ................................................................... 254
(b) Jurisdiction ............................................................................................. 302
5. Lack of Jurisdiction due to Nature of Subject Matter ............................. 254
(c) Powers and Procedures .......................................................................... 303
6. Power to Review Own Decisions .............................................................. 257 (d) Jurisdiction of Tribunal: Review or Appellate? ..................................... 304
7. Exhaustion of Power by Tribunal and Res Judicata ............................... 259 (e) Appeal ..................................................................................................... 304
8. Quasi-judicial Authority to Act Independently ...................................... 259 8. National Environment Tribunal ................................................................ 305
9. Quasi-judicial Decisions subject to Administrative Review ................. 261 (a) Jurisdiction and Proceedings ................................................................. 307
10. Determination of Questions of Fact by Administrative (b) Appeal ..................................................................................................... 307
Tribunals: Scope of Judicial Review ........................................................ · 263 9. Telecom Disputes Settlement and Appellate Tribunal .......................... 307
11. Questions of Fact within Jurisdiction ....................................................... 264 (a) Composition ............................................................................................ 308
12. Fact Finding in Departmental Inquiries ................................................... 266 (b) Tenure and Conditions of Service .......................................................... 309
13. When can Court Interfere with Findings of Facts? ................................ 267 (c) Qualifications of Members ..................................................................... 310
(d) Removal and Resignation ....................................................................... 310
14. Jurisdictional Question ............................................................................... 269
(d) Procedure and Powers of Tribunal ......................................................... 311
15. Determination of Jurisdictional Facts ....................................................... 269
(e) Appeal ..................................................................................................... 311
16. Error of Law Apparent on the Face of Record ........................................ 272
10. Appellate Tribunal for Electricity ............................................................. 312
Anisminic Decision: New Trend .................................................................. 272 (a) Procedure and Powers of Appel/ate Tribunal ........................................ 314
17. Indian Law .................................................................................................... 272 (b) Appeal ..................................................................................................... 315
18. Proportionality ............................................................................................. 276
Commissions
19. Exclusion of Judicial Control .................................................................... · 278
11. Introduction .................................................................................................. 315
20. American Law .............................................................................................. 280
12. The Election Commission ........................................................................... 317
21. Indian Law .................................................................................................... 281
Scope of Functions and Powers of the Election Commission ....................... 319
22. Finality Provisions in the Constitution .................................................... 281
13. National Commission for Scheduled Castes and
23. Finality Clauses in Statutes ........................................................................ 283
ScheduledT ribes ........................................................................................... 324
24. Ouster of Jurisdiction of Civil/ Criminal Courts ................................... 284
14. Press Council ...................... _. ....................................................................... 326
25. Time Limit Clauses ...................................................................................... 287
15. Commissions of Inquiry ............................................................................. 329
(a) Appointment .......................................................................................... 330
CHAPTER 7 (b) Terms of Reference ................................................................................. 331
(c) Restrictions on Appointment ................................................................. 331
Tribunals, Commissions and Regulatory Authorities
(d) Centre-State Division of Powers ............................................................ 332
Tribunals (e) Inquiry in Matters of Litigation in Courts ............................................ 332
if) Powers of Commissions .......................................................................... 332
1. Definition ...................................................................................................... 289 (g) Quasi-Judicial Functions ....................................................................... 333
(a) What is 'Tribunal' for Purpose of Articles 227 (h) Immunities of Persons giving Evidence ................................................. 334
and 136? ................................................................................................. 289 (i) Punishment for Insult to Commission ................................................... 335
(b) Tribunal: More Specific Connotations ................................................... 291 (}) Legis/ative Control ................................................................................. 336
xvii
xvi
Contents Contents
16. National Commission for Women ............................................................ 337 22. Electricity Regulatory Commissions ........................................................ 362
(a) Composition ............................................................................................ 337 (a) Central Electricity Regulatory Commission .......................................... 362
(b) Tenure and Removal of Members ........................................................... 337 (b) State Electricity Regulatory Commission .............................................. 366
(c) Functions of Commission ....................................................................... 338 (c) Joint Commission ................................................................................... 368
(d) Powers and Procedures .......................................................................... 338 (d) Terms of Office and Conditions of Service of Chairpersons
17. National Commission for Minorities ........................................................ 339 and Members .......................................................................................... 369
(e) Proceedings and Powers of Appropriate Commissions .......................... 370
(a) Purpose of Commission .......................................................................... 339
if) Funds of Commissions ........................................................................... 372
(b) Composition ............................................................................................ 339
(c) Procedure ................................................................................................ 340 23. Telecom Regulatory Authority of India ................................................... 373
18. National Commission on Human Rights ................................................. 341 (a) Purpose and Establishment ..................................................................... 373
(b) Composition ............................................................................................. 373
(a) Establishment and Composition ............................................................. 341
(c) Tenure and Conditions of Service ........................................................... 374
(b) Appointment by Selection Committee ................................................... 341
(d) Removal .................................................................................................. 375
(c) Removal of Chairperson or Member ....................................................... 342
(e) Powers and Functions ............................................................................. 375
(d) Tenure ofM embers ................................................................................. 342
if) Appellate Tribunal ................................................................................... 377
(e) Functions ................................................................................................ 343
if) Procedure ................................................................................................ 344 24. Insurance Regulatory and Development Authority .............................. 378
(g) Powers .................................................................................................... 344 (a) Establishment and Composition ............................................................. 378
(lz) Immunity from Liability ........................................................................ 345 (b) Tenure of Office, Conditions of Service, and Provisions
(i) Commission's Actions ............................................................................ 346 for Removal ............................................................................................. 378
(j) Reports of Commission ........................................................................... 347 (c) Salary, Allowances and Conditions of Service ...................................... · 379
(k) State Human Rights Commissions ........................................................ 348 (d) Administrative Powers, Staff and Meetings .......................................... 379
19. National Commission for Backward Classes .............................................. 348 (e) Transfer of Assets and Liabilities ........................................................... 380
if) Duties, Powers and Functions of Authority .......................................... 380
(a) Establishment and Composition ............................................................. 348
(g) Finance, Accounts and Audit ............................................ 381
(b) Tenure, Removal and Service Conditions of Members .......................... 349 « ..................
(h) Central Government's Powers ............................................................... 382
(c) Procedure ................................................................................................ 349
(i) Delegation of Power and Delegated Legislation ..................................... 383
(d) Annual Report ........................................................................................ 349
Administrative Agencies
CHAPTER 8
Regulatory Authorities
Review of Administrative Discretion
20. Introduction .................................................................................................. 350
1. Discretion Inevitable ................................................................................... 386
21. Competition Commission .......................................................................... 351
2. Discretion and Legality .................................................... ·. ....................... · 386
(a) Establishment ......................................................................................... 351
Doctrine of Ultra Vires ................................................................................. 387
(b) Functions ................................................................................................ 352
3. Constitutional Objections to the Grant of Discretion ............................. 388
(c) Composition ............................................................................................ 352
(d) Selection of Members .............................................................................. 353 (a) Grant of Discretion and Article 14 ........................................................ 388
(e) Tenure and Removal of Members ........................................................... 353 (b) Right to Freedom .................................................................................... 391
if) Embargo on Post-retirement Employment ............................................. 355 (c) Administrative Actions Ultra Vires the Constitution ........................... 396
(g) Designating Members with Financial and (d) Discretion regarding Government Largesse .......................................... 398
Administrative Powers ........................................................................... 355 4. Scope of Discretion Determined ................................................................ 402
(h) Salaries and Conditions of Service of Chairperson 5. Judicial Restraint .......................................................................................... 405
and Members .......................................................................................... 355
6. Grounds for Attacking the Exercise of Administrative
(i) Duties, Powers and Functions ............................................................... 356 Discretion ...................................................................................................... 406
(j) Jurisdiction and Procedures of Inquiry .................................................. 357
(a) Doctrine of Ultra Vires .......................................................................... 406
(k) Review and Appeal ................................................................................. 358
(b) Power not Exercised by Proper Authority ............................................. 413
(I) Penalties ................................................................................................. 359
(c) Improper Exercise of Discretion: Judicial Review .................................. 417
(m) Accounts and Audits and other Controls .............................................. 359
(d) Arbitrary use of Discretion .................................................................... 439
(n) Central Government's Powers ............................................................... 361
xviii xix
Contents
Contents
(e) Proportionality as a Parameter of Validity of
Administrative Action ........................................................................... 444 10. Article 142: To Protect the Judiciary ......................................................... 507
(j) Legitimate Expectations Belied .............................................................. 444 Articles 142(1) and 145(5) ........................................................................... 510
7. Discretion Conferred by the Constitution ............................................... 449 11. Standing to Challenge Administrative Action ........................................ 511
(a) Ordinance-making Power ...................................................................... 449 (a) Standing to Challenge Administrative Action before
(b) Power to Grant Pardon or Remission .................................................... 450 Statutory Authorities ............................................................................. 512
(c) Power to Proclaim Emergency ............................................................... 451 (b) Standing to Challenge Administrative Action under
(d) Power to Dismiss a State Government under Article 356 .................... 452 Articles 32 and 226 of the Constitution .................................................. 516
(e) Power to Confer Titles and Awards ....................................................... 454 (c) England: Liberalisation of Locus Standi ................................................ 516
(j) Election Commission's Powers under Article 324 of (d) Traditional Rule ..................................................................................... 517
the Constitution ..................................................................................... 454 (e) Public Interest: Liberalisation of Locus Standi in
Indian Courts ......................................................................................... 518
CHAPTER 9 (j) Standing may be Lost by Waiver or Estoppel ........................................ 520
(g) Recognition of Group Rights ................................................................. 520
Writ Jurisdiction and Appellate Jurisdiction: Scope and Extent (h) Locus Standi in Criminal Cases ............................................................. 523
(i) Liberalisation of Locus Standi in Fundamental
1. Growth of Writ Jurisdiction in India: Historical Review ...................... 457
Rights Cases ........................................................................................... 524
(a) Constitutional Framework ..................................................................... 459
12. Public Interest Litigation ............................................................................ 525
(b) Special Features of Writ Jurisdiction under
the Constitution ..................................................................................... 460 (a) Suo Moto Actions or Epistolary Jurisdiction ......................................... 525
(c) Article 32 ................................................................................................ 463 (b) Petitions by Social Action Groups ......................................................... 526
(d) Article 226 .............................................................................................. 469 (c) Petitions against Government Lawlessness ........................................... 532
(d) Independence of the Judiciary ................................................................ 535
2. Procedural ReqUisites: Applicability of the Code of
(e) Environmental Jurisprudence ................................................................ 536
Civil Procedure ............................................................................................ 483
(j) Compensation for Victims ...................................................................... 539
3. Jurisdiction: Territorial ............................................................................... 484
(g) Judicial Directions: New Judge-made Legislation ................................. 543
4. Forty-second Amendment: Changes in Article 226 ............................... 484 (h) Judicial Process becomes Participatory .................................................. 545
5. Interim Orders ............................................................................................. 485 (i) Public Character of PIL: Can it be Withdrawn? ................................... 545
(a) Interim Orders in respect of Admissions to (j) Constraints on Public Interest Litigation .............................................. 546
Educational Institutions ........................................................................ 487 (k) Implementation ofludicial Orders in PIL ............................................. 551
(b) Interim Orders and Public Revenue ...................................................... 487 13. Writs and other Remedies: Nature and Scope ........................................ 551
6. Scope of High Court's Jurisdiction under Article 226 ........................... 489 (a) Against whom are Writs Available? ...................................................... 551
High Court held to have Exceeded its Jurisdiction ....................................... 490 (b) Methods of Judicial Control: Writs and Orders ..................................... 556
7. Exceptions to the Availability of Constitutional (c) Writs or Orders: Judicial Flexibility ...................................................... 571
Remedies ....................................................................................................... 494 (d) Civil Remedies: ....................................................................................... 572
(a) Rights of the Armed Forces .................................................................... 494 14. Concluding Remarks .................................................................................. 576
(b) Suspension of Judicial Review during Emergency ................................ 494
8. Supervisory and Appellate Jurisdiction of High Courts CHAPTER 10
and the Supreme Court: Article 227 ......................................................... 496
Suits against the Administration: State Liability
(a) Nature of Power ..................................................................................... 497
(b) Difference between Jurisdictions under Articles 226 and 227 .............. 499 1. Suits against Government ........................................................................ __ 578
(c) Discretionary Jurisdiction ...................................................................... 500
2. Notice of a Suit to Government ................................................................. 578
(d) Letters Patent Jurisdiction ..................................................................... 500
3. Speedier Remedy for Evicting Unauthorised Tenants .......................... 582
9. Article 136 ..................................................................................................... 501
4. Period of Limitation for Suits against Government ............................... 582
(a) Discretionary Nature ofJ urisdiction ..................................................... 501
(b) When Does the Supreme Court Grant Leave of Appeal? ...................... 502 5. Priority to Tax Recovery ............................................................................. 583
(c) Res Judicata ............................................................................................ 504 6. Other Provisions According Preference to the State .............................. 584
(d) Scope of Special Leave Jurisdiction ........................................................ 504 7. Liability of the Public Servant .................................. ,. ............................... 584
8. Sanction for Prosecution .............................................................. ,. ............. 586
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