A to Z world women in culture and business businesswomen

354 Pages·2009·4.743 MB·English

by  Sibylla Putzi-Ortiz,  Mary Jo Teplitz, Sherrill Schaefer

175 Countries
Position in Society
Legal Rights
Education
Health
Dating, Marriage, and Family
Interesting Social Customs
Women in Professions
Women as Business Owners
Foreign Businesswomen
Sibylla Putzi, Senior Editor
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A to Z World Women in Culture and Business
ISBN: 978-1-60780-048-4
Publisher: Edward G. Hinkelman
Senior Editor: Sibylla Putzi
Graphic Designer: Cyndi Colzani
Contributing Editors: Mary Jo Teplitz, Sherrill Schaefer
Desktop Publishing: Alan Kantor, Roy Hinkelman
Programmer/Analyst: Paul Denegri
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Library of Congress Cataloging-in-Publication Data
Printed in the United States of America
World Women in Culture and Business 5
A to Z World Women in Culture and Business
Table of Contents
Afghanistan . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 7 Georgia . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 120 Niger . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 239
Albania . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 9 Germany . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 121 Nigeria . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 241
Algeria . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 11 Ghana . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 124 North Korea . . . . . . . . . . . . . 243
Angola . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 13 Greece . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 126 Norway . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 245
Argentina . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 15 Guam . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 128 Oman . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 247
Armenia . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 17 Guatemala . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 129 Pakistan . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 249
Australia . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 19 Guinea . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 132 Panama . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 251
Austria . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 21 Guinea-Bissau . . . . . . . . . . . 134 Papua New Guinea . . . . . . . 253
Azerbaijan . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 23 Guyana . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 136 Paraguay . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 255
Bahamas . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 25 Haiti . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 138 Peru . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 257
Bahrain . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 26 Honduras . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 140 Philippines . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 259
Bangladesh . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 28 Hong . . . . . . . . . . . . . Kong 142 Poland . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 261
Belarus . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 30 Hungary . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 144 Portugal . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 263
Belgium . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 32 Iceland . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 146 Qatar . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 264
Belize . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 34 India . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 148 Romania . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 266
Benin . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 36 Indonesia . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 151 Russia . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 268
Bermuda . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 38 Iran . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 153 Rwanda . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 270
Bolivia . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 39 Iraq . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 156 Saudi . . . . . . . . . . . . Arabia 272
Bosnia and Herzegovina . . . . . 41 Ireland . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 158 Senegal . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 274
Botswana . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 43 Israel . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 160 Serbia . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 276
Brazil . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 45 Italy . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 162 Sierra Leone . . . . . . . . . . . . . 278
Brunei . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 47 Jamaica . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 164 Singapore . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 280
Bulgaria . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 49 Japan . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 166 Slovakia . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 282
Burkina Faso . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 51 Jordan . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 168 Slovenia . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 284
Burundi . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 53 Kazakhstan . . . . . . . . . . . . . 171 Solomon Islands . . . . . . . . . . 286
Cambodia . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 55 Kenya . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 173 Somalia . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 288
Cameroon . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 57 Kosovo . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 175 South Africa . . . . . . . . . . . . . 290
Canada . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 59 Kuwait . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 177 South Korea . . . . . . . . . . . . . 292
Central African Republic . . . . . 61 Kyrgyzstan . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 179 Spain . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 294
Chad . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 63 Laos . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 181 Sri Lanka . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 296
Chechnya . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 65 Latvia . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 183 Sudan . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 298
Chile . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 67 Lebanon . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 185 Suriname . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 300
China . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 69 Lesotho . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 187 Swaziland . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 302
Colombia . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 71 Liberia . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 189 Sweden . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 304
Comoros . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 73 Libya . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 191 Switzerland . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 306
Costa Rica . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 75 Lithuania . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 193 Syria . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 308
Cote d'Ivoire . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 77 Luxembourg . . . . . . . . . . . . . 195 Taiwan . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 310
Croatia . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 78 Macau . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 197 Tajikistan . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 312
Cuba . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 81 Macedonia . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 199 Tanzania . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 314
Cyprus . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 83 Madagascar . . . . . . . . . . . . . 201 Thailand . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 316
Czech Republic . . . . . . . . . . . . 85 Malawi . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 203 Togo . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 318
Democratic Rep. of Congo . . . 87 Malaysia . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 205 Trinidad & Tobago . . . . . . . . 320
Denmark . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 89 Maldives . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 207 Tunisia . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 322
Djibouti . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 91 Mali . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 209 Turkey . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 324
Dominican Republic . . . . . . . . 92 Malta . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 211 Turkmenistan . . . . . . . . . . . . 326
Ecuador . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 94 Mauritania . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 213 Uganda . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 328
Egypt . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 96 Mauritius . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 215 Ukraine . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 330
El Salvador . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 98 Mexico . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 217 United Arab Emirates . . . . . . 332
Equatorial Guinea . . . . . . . . . 100 Moldova . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 219 United Kingdom . . . . . . . . . . 334
Eritrea . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 102 Mongolia . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 221 United States . . . . . . . . . . . . 336
Estonia . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 104 Morocco . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 223 Uruguay . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 338
Ethiopia . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 106 Mozambique . . . . . . . . . . . . 225 Uzbekistan . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 340
Fiji . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 108 Myanmar . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 227 Venezuela . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 342
Finland . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 110 Namibia . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 229 Vietnam . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 344
France . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 112 Nepal . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 231 Western Sahara . . . . . . . . . . 346
French Guiana . . . . . . . . . . . 114 Netherlands . . . . . . . . . . . . . 233 Yemen . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 348
Gabon . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 116 New Zealand . . . . . . . . . . . . 235 Zambia . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 350
Gambia . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 118 Nicaragua . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 237 Zimbabwe . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 352
6 A to Z
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World Women in Culture and Business 7 Afghanistan
Afghanistan
Women in Culture of 35) in the Constitutional Review Commission.
President Hamid Karzai appointed two women appointed
to the Judicial Commission at its inauguration. The
General View and Position in Society
December 2004 cabinet had three women ministers
Afghanistan society is male-dominated. The family is holding the portfolios for women’s affairs, martyrs and
given a lot of importance, and the roles of men within disabled, and youth affairs. A woman also heads the
families are to be the bread winners, while women are Afghan Independent Human Rights Commission is also
responsible for taking care of the house and children. headed by a woman.
Practices like endogamous marriages (parallel and cross- The United States has put in place several programs for
cousin marriages), patrilineal inheritances (in the male Afghani women aimed at increasing their political
order), and patrilocal customs (married women moving to participation and making them equal and active members
their husband’s kin group or clan) are quite widespread. of civil society. Women also have the right to drive and to
The Taliban rule from 1996 to 2001 made life a living hell own, sell, and inherit property.
for Afghan women. They could not work, go out of the
Women are allowed to have an abortion until the third
house without a male escort, get an education, or seek
month of pregnancy, but only if the pregnancy is
medical help from a male healthcare professional. They
detrimental to the mother’s health and the woman has
had to be covered from head to toe in a burqa, a long
obtained permission from the health ministry and acquires
outer robe-like garment which has only a mesh near the
certificates from three different medical professionals.
eyes and nose to enable the women to see and breathe.
Such suppression forced many women to forgo their jobs Education
and turn to begging or prostitution for sustenance. The
During the Taliban rule, girls were forbidden to attend
advent of the democratic government has slowly led to a
school. With the advent of democracy, girls in great
regaining of their rights.
numbers have started attending schools. Around five
The new constitution of Afghanistan gives men and
million children enrolled in school in 2003, out of which 40
women equal rights and duties. Women are slowly
percent were girls. Regrettably however, the present
entering the professional arena and climbing the ladder to
government has upheld a 70’s rule that prevented married
higher positions at work. There are many Afghani women
women from attending high school – causing the
now who are very successful professionally, and such
expulsion of more than 3,000 women from schools. Also,
women belonging to a higher social or economic class are
traditional prejudices in rural areas has impeded women
treated with respect. They are also exempted from
seeking education and employment. There have been
wearing the burqa, though many still continue to wear it.
instances where schools have been burned down and
The new government has opened hundreds of schools for
girls poisoned for attempting to go to school. These types
both boys and girls, and over 100,000 girls were enrolled
of incidences are more prevalent in provinces like
in schools in just one province in that year.
Kandahar where people still live under the fear of the
In terms of economic independence, cultural barriers still Taliban.
remain for women. In rural areas, for instance, women are
The total literacy rate in Afghanistan is just 36 percent, out
not even allowed to go out of the house unescorted.
of which the male rate is 51 percent and the female rate
Forced marriages of girl children and violence against
21 percent. Educated women are getting back to their
women are still commonplace. Even the courts have been
jobs as teachers, doctors, and other professionals after
known to overlook the general plight of women.
years of enforced absence. Opportunities are still limited
Women are expected to dress conservatively and modestly. however, and there is discrimination against women
They should not show any bare skin, especially from the joining some sectors.
neck downwards. Headscarves are also mandatory in some
families. Professional women wear loose, knee-length Dating, Marriage and Family
business skirts along with trousers under the skirt. Many Afghan women are still forced into arranged marriages.
women also continue to wear a burqa. Women have absolutely no right to select their partners,
which is entirely at the discretion of male family members.
Legal Rights
Marriage of girls with older men is also common – the
The new constitution, which came into effect in January main reason cited for this is mitigation of debt, as the
2004, gives equal rights to men and women. Women groom gives a dowry to the girl’s family. Legally, the
were not allowed to participate in politics until then, but marriageable age is 18 years, but many girls in their early
now Afghan women have the right to vote and to run for teens are still forced into marriage.
office, and they made up around 40 percent of the more
Open dating is not approved or practiced in Afghanistan.
than 10 million registered voters in 2004. There are also
Professional men and women may meet and socialize in
reserved seats in the parliament for women – 25 percent
group settings, but close interaction of the sexes is
in the lower house and 17 percent in the upper house.
frowned upon in Afghan society; and even men from
There are 102 women members out of the total 500
educated families can be very conservative in their
members in the constitutional Loya Jirga (Grand Council).
attitude toward women. According to Islamic law, a man
There were also two women (out of nine) in the
can marry up to four women, but with approval from the
Constitutional Drafting Committee and seven women (out
courts (and his wives) he can marry more than four
Afghanistan 8 A to Z
women. Traditionally, women get to retain their family including the right to vote, to own a business, and to
name, as well as any money and property they may have inherit and own property. In reality, however, most
obtained, both before and after marriage, but this can be Afghans strongly disapprove of women performing any of
difficult to enforce. the above functions. A survey conducted by a Kabul-
Women have a legal right to obtain divorce on the based research group found that less than two percent of
grounds of a husband’s insanity, impotence, or non- women among the 360 households covered in the survey
payment of maintenance. Domestic violence is not owned land in their own right.
enough of a reason for filing for divorce. Obtaining divorce Though times are slowly changing, there remains a
without the cooperation of the husband is very difficult and largeap in the pay packages of men and women
almost impossible. Women are not granted custody of performing the same job. The main issue, however, is not
children upon divorce or the death of the husband – the the difference in pay but the fact that women are actually
husband, or his family, gets custody of the children. allowed to take up jobs.
Health Women in Professions
Healthcare services in Afghanistan are very poor. Access The most common traditional job for women in
to emergency and specialist services is almost Afghanistan is carpet-making. With women having to
impossible. The maternal mortality rate is 1,600 per overcome incredible odds to do something as simple as
100,000 women, and more in certain provinces. Lack of holding an outside job, it comes as no surprise that only a
proper family planning, poor prenatal care, scarcity of few Afghan women have managed to summon up the
medication and trained medical professionals, and lack of courage to cross traditional barriers and start businesses
knowledge of hygiene contribute to the high rate of of their own. One of them is Fatimeh, who owns two
maternal mortality, and the government is struggling to beauty salons in the capital city of Kabul. Though she had
tackle this problem. Afghan women don’t have access to, to overcome numerous obstacles early on, she is now
or control over, family planning methods like birth control firmly established, and clients must make appointments
or spacing of children, due to traditional Islamic weeks in advance to avail of her services. Another is
reservations. Aziza Mohmmand, who runs a leather football
manufacturing factory. Growth rates for women in
Interesting Social Customs
business are bound to follow an upward trend, with more
There are some specific procedures for obtaining a and more women coming out of homes to start
divorce. One of them is the iddah, a waiting period of businesses. Though women are theoretically not barred
three months after the divorce. During the iddah, family from any professions, most Afghan men dislike their
members and relatives try to convince the couple to womenfolk leaving the house, and even when they are
reconcile. Another objective of the iddah is to determine allowed to do so, they are prevented from mixing with
whether the woman is pregnant. In case she is pregnant, members of the opposite sex. Since males dominate
the husband will have to take care of her until the child is most business and employment sectors in Afghanistan,
born. Divorced women with very small children are women are placed in a very difficult situation. Dress codes
allowed to nurse their children for two years, during which have relaxed considerably from the days of the Taliban
time the husband has to bear the cost of maintenance of regime, when women could venture from home only after
both mother and child. covering themselves completely from head to toe. Today,
Afghan women are expected to dress very conservatively,
and most women wear a burqa covering the entire body
Women in Business
from the neck downwards while in public. Office attire
typically consists of a headscarf, a knee-length loose skirt,
General View and loose-fitting professional trousers underneath.
Under the Afghan constitution, women are guaranteed
The legacy of the previous Taliban regime still holds
access to health and childcare, though state-sponsored
strong in most areas of Afghanistan. Under their strict
child care is currently unavailable.
Islamist hard-line policies, women were not allowed to
venture from their homes, let alone find employment. Women as Business Owners
Afghanistan is a strongly male-dominated society and
The number of women who own their business remains
those perceptions are bound to take some time to
very low, given the social and political hurdles they have
change. Women in Afghanistan who wish to find a job or
to overcome to establish their own businesses. However,
start a business are faced with an array of social, cultural,
the situation has improved, and more women are
and economic barriers. The biggest barrier is often to be
venturing out to start their own businesses, with some
found at home, with most husbands and relatives strongly
even traveling abroad to promote their products.
discouraging women from venturing out of home.
Women-owned businesses typically consist of beauty
A beginning however has been made after the formation
parlors, small textile factories, handicraft workshops,
of the democratic government, and long-held views
leather factories, and jewelry shops.
relating to women holding jobs and doing business is
gradually changing. The most obvious signs of the Businesswomen Visiting the Country
change appear in the increased number of shops and
other small businesses run by women. Foreign businesswomen are expected to follow the
prevailing social and cultural customs that bind Afghan
Legal Rights women. When presented with a business card it is
necessary for the presenter to see the recipient studying
According to the recent Afghan constitution, women are
it. Probing questions about one’s family are not welcome.
granted the same legal rights as men in every respect,
World Women in Culture and Business 9 Albania
Men and women do not shake hands. When walking suffice to stop one’s hosts. The proper method of
down a street, foreign women are strongly advised to indicating that one has had enough is by covering the
keep their eyes lowered and to follow conservative dress glass with one’s hand and saying “bus,” which means
codes (headscarves and no exposed skin apart from “enough”.Fridays are weekly holidays in Afghanistan.
one’s hands). A man speaking directly to a woman on the During the holy month of Ramadan, all Muslims fast from
street means he is dishonoring her, so do not respond in dawn to dusk. This fasting includes abstaining from food,
such a situation. drink, cigarettes, and even gum. Although foreigners are
When invited to one’s home for tea, foreigners will find not required to fast, performing any of the above-
their glass being constantly refilled. A simple “No” will not mentioned activities in public is not allowed.
Albania
Women in Culture Education
The Albanian constitution prohibits discrimination based
General View and Position in Society on gender, but in practice, women have fewer
opportunities in education and jobs than men. The law
Traditional Albanian society considered women has made eight years of primary education compulsory
subordinate to men, seeing them primarily as providers of for all children of both sexes. In urban areas, 52 percent of
home and childcare and as field laborers. The Communist girls who completed primary school continued their
government did much to empower women during the studies in high school, whereas in rural areas only 28
1960s and 1970s, granting Albanian women equality with percent of the girls did so, compared to 72 percent of the
men in job opportunity and pay as well as in political and boys. Despite these education levels, women generally
social rights. The transition to democracy, ironically, still do not enjoy equal opportunities and treatment with
instead of improving women’s empowerment, has men in the workplace. Rural girls often discontinue
brought back the once-dormant male-centric attitudes of studies due to a cultural view that their education would
Albanian society, and many women are now finding be a “waste” when they marry.
themselves marginalized in political and economic
arenas. Women also suffered setbacks on economic Dating, Marriage, and Family
fronts after 1991. Many of the female workers who
Albanian women usually do not date. Women meet men
occupied 80 percent of the jobs in light industry found
only in social gatherings and family get-togethers.
themselves without jobs after privatization.
Traditional Albanians prefer marriages at an early age in
Albanian women traditionally wear skirts, aprons, order to protect girls from losing their virginity before
headscarves (and sometimes veils) decked out with marriage. Traditionally, Albanian marriages are arranged
bright and colorful embroidery. by parents with the help of a matchmaker. In some areas,
Albanians often conduct betrothals between infant
Legal Rights
children in order to ensure family alliances. Generally,
Although the Albanian constitution grants equal rights to women take their husband’s name after marriage.
women in all areas of life – political, social, and economic Though polygamous marriages existed in a few areas up
– the cultural traditions of the country have impeded the to the beginning of the twentieth century (particularly for
implementation of these legal rights. Women still have the the reason that the first wife did not bear any children),
right to vote, but the number of elected female legislators monogamy is the norm in Albania.
has decreased from a high of 30 percent at the end of the Despite laws to the contrary, women do not enjoy equal
Communist period to only 5.7 percent (8 women out of rights in inheriting property and seldom own assets
140 MPs). separate from their husbands. Divorces have become
The right to own and inherit property is also legally more common recently. Wives are not entitled to alimony
protected, but the patriarchal mentality prevalent in after divorce, and both parents contribute to the child’s
Albania means that male children still generally inherit the care until the age of 18.
family property. In many parts, Albanians overtly follow a Albanian society still prefers boys over girls at birth.
code of ethics called the Kanun, according to which only Albanians have a high birth rate due to their belief that
men have the right to inherit the property. more male children mean more security in their old age.
Under law both the parents have responsibility for the Pregnant women are typically greeted with të
maintenance of children up to 18 years of age, or 25 lindtënjëdjalë (“may a son be born”). In some areas the
years in case of students. The person who requests birth of a girl is marked by painting the beam of the house
guardianship (normally the mother) obtains the custody of in black, as a symbol of displeasure.Societal prejudices
children. The Family Code provisions for women have make life difficult for a childless woman.
made it easier for women to obtain divorces in Albania.
Health
Albanian women are granted the right to have abortions if
they receive proper counseling regarding the health Women have equal access to medical care, but the high
hazards of abortion and alternatives (such as adoption) level of bribery in the medical care system sometimes
available to them. restricts their access. The Albanian constitution legalized