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. Sri Satguru Jagjit Singh Ji eLibrary [email protected] . I.B.TAURIS SHORT HISTORIES I.B.Tauris Short Histories is an authoritative and elegantly written new series which puts a fresh perspective on the way history is taught and understood in the twenty-first century. Designed to have strong appeal to university students and their teachers, as well as to general readers and history enthusiasts, I.B.Tauris Short Histories comprises a novel attempt to bring informed interpretation, as well as factual reportage, to historical debate. Addressing key subjects and topics in the fields of history, the history of ideas, religion, classical studies, politics, philosophy and Middle East studies, the series seeks intentionally to move beyond the bland, neutral ‘introduction’ that so often serves as the primary undergraduate teaching tool. While always providing students and generalists with the core facts that they need to get to grips with the essentials of any particular subject, I.B.Tauris Short Histories goes further. It offers new insights into how a topic has been understood in the past, and what different social and cultural factors might have been at work. It brings original perspectives to bear on the manner of its current interpretation. It raises questions and – in its extensive bibliographies – points to further study, even as it suggests answers. Addressing a variety of subjects in a greater degree of depth than is often found in comparable series, yet at the same time in concise and compact handbook form, I.B.Tauris Short Histories aims to be ‘introductions with an edge’. In combining questioning and searching analysis with informed history writing, it brings history up-to-date for an increasingly complex and globalized digital age. www.short-histories.com . Sri Satguru Jagjit Singh Ji eLibrary [email protected] . ‘Michael Fisher’s A Short History of the Mughal Empire is a long overdue scholarly study of the Mughal period in early modern India. There has been no comparably cohesive study of the empire since the great John Richards brought out The Mughal Empire in the early 1990s. While it is described as a “Short History,” Fisher’s study is surprisingly comprehensive and detailed, successfully engaging much of the recent scholarship in Mughal studies and braiding it into a highly accessible and thorough narrative of imperial events. Fisher pays particular attention to creating a rich and thorough context for historical events; for example, his detailed exploration of early sixteenth century Hindustani politics and culture creates a richly contextualized setting for early Mughal raids and military conquest. Unlike earlier narrative histories of the Mughals, including that of Richards, Fisher’s work is sensitive to the critical political role played by women of the dynasty. He also proves willing to engage the highly complex religious identities and performances of the Mughals. Although this is essentially a political narrative, Fisher displays consistent interest in the power of language and poetry, of art and architecture. One of the most valuable sections of the book, and a great boon to teachers and their students, is the final chapter, “Contested Meanings.” Having very efficiently wrapped up the last hundred years of the disintegrating empire, Fisher halts the narrative flow to explore the meaning and debates of Mughal historiography, beginning with the writings of Mughal chroniclers and memoirists, moving to that of their contemporaries in the region and in Europe, into the period of the Raj and even engaging the treatment of the Mughals by post-independence historians, briefly tracking intellectual movements in the historiography of the modern nations of Pakistan and India. Fisher’s book will become the go-to resource for scholars of the Mughals and early modern South Asia and it holds great value for historians of Empire and the pre-modern Islamic world. A natural niche for Fisher’s book will be in the classroom, where the Short History will offer undergraduate and graduate students a lively yet exacting narrative of the Mughal dynasty, critically and intellectually examined. Fisher’s study is nuanced and insightful, and written in an authoritative but contemporary and engaging style that powerfully enhances its readability.’ – Lisa Balabanlilar, Associate Professor of History, Rice University ‘Professor Fisher has done a great scholarly service by producing a comprehensive, up-to-date and insightful survey of Mughal history. It is detailed enough in its mention of sources, personalities, and concepts that serious students of the Mughal Empire can benefit from it. Yet it is also eminently readable, making it accessible to the general reader.’ – A. Azfar Moin, Assistant Professor of Religious Studies, University of Texas at Austin ‘This erudite and accessible book wonderfully combines Michael Fisher’s decades- long experience thinking about the Mughals with the best insights of recent scholarship on the Mughal Empire. What emerges is a rich picture of a dynamic and evolving imperial state and society, shaped as much by contingency as by deliberate policies. A must-read for anyone interested in the Mughal Empire.’ – Munis D. Faruqui, Associate Professor of South Asia Studies, University of California at Berkeley . Sri Satguru Jagjit Singh Ji eLibrary [email protected] . A Short History of . . . the American Civil War Paul Anderson (Clemson University) the American Revolutionary War Stephen Conway (University College London) Ancient China Edward L Shaughnessy (University of Chicago) Ancient Greece P J Rhodes, FBA (Durham University) Ancient Rome Andrew Wallace-Hadrill (University of Cambridge) the Anglo-Saxons Henrietta Leyser (University of Oxford) the Byzantine Empire Dionysios Stathakopoulos (King’s College London) the Celts Alex Woolf (University of St Andrews) Christian Spirituality Edward Howells (Heythrop College, University of London)) the Crimean War Trudi Tate (University of Cambridge) English Renaissance Drama Helen Hackett (University College London) the English Revolution and the Civil Wars David J Appleby (University of Nottingham) the Etruscans Corinna Riva (University College London) the Hundred Years War Michael Prestwich (Durham University) Irish Independence J J Lee (New York University) the Italian Renaissance Virginia Cox (New York University) the Korean War Allan R Millett (University of New Orleans) Medieval Christianity G R Evans (University of Cambridge) Medieval English Mysticism Vincent Gillespie (University of Oxford) the Minoans John Bennet (University of Sheffield) the Mongols George Lane (SOAS, University of London) the Mughal Empire Michael H Fisher (Oberlin College) Muslim Spain Alex J Novikoff (Rhodes College, Memphis) New Kingdom Egypt Robert Morkot (University of Exeter) the New Testament Halvor Moxnes (University of Oslo) Nineteenth-Century Philosophy Joel Rasmussen (University of Oxford) the Normans Leonie Hicks (Canterbury Christ Church University) the Ottoman Empire Baki Tezcan (University of California, Davis) . Sri Satguru Jagjit Singh Ji eLibrary [email protected] . the Phoenicians Mark Woolmer (Durham University) the Reformation Helen Parish (University of Reading) the Renaissance in Northern Europe Malcolm Vale (University of Oxford) Revolutionary Cuba Antoni Kapcia (University of Nottingham) the Risorgimento Nick Carter (Australian Catholic University, Sydney) the Russian Revolution Geoffrey Swain (University of Glasgow) the Spanish Civil War Julián Casanova (University of Zaragoza) the Spanish Empire Felipe Fernández-Armesto (University of Notre Dame) and José Juan López-Portillo (University of Oxford) Transatlantic Slavery Kenneth Morgan (Brunel University) Venice and the Venetian Empire Maria Fusaro (University of Exeter) the Vikings Clare Downham (University of Liverpool) the Wars of the Roses David Grummitt (University of Kent) the Weimar Republic Colin Storer (University of Nottingham) . Sri Satguru Jagjit Singh Ji eLibrary [email protected] . THE MUGHAL EMPIRE Michael H. Fisher . Sri Satguru Jagjit Singh Ji eLibrary [email protected] . Published in 2016 by I.B.Tauris & Co. Ltd London • New York www.ibtauris.com Copyright © 2016 Michael H. Fisher The right of Michael H. Fisher to be identified as the author of this work has been asserted by the author in accordance with the Copyright, Designs and Patents Act 1988. All rights reserved. Except for brief quotations in a review, this book, or any part thereof, may not be reproduced, stored in or introduced into a retrieval system, or transmitted, in any form or by any means, electronic, mechanical, photocopying, recording or otherwise, without the prior written permission of the publisher. Every attempt has been made to gain permission for the use of the images in this book. Any omissions will be rectified in future editions. References to websites were correct at the time of writing. ISBN: 978 1 84885 872 5 (HB) ISBN: 978 1 84885 873 2 (PB) e ISBN: 978 0 85772 976 7 e ISBN: 978 0 85772 777 0 (ePDF) A full CIP record for this book is available from the British Library A full CIP record is available from the Library of Congress Library of Congress Catalog Card Number: available Typeset by Freerange . Sri Satguru Jagjit Singh Ji eLibrary [email protected] . Contents List of Charts, Maps and Illustrations ix Note on Transliteration and Names xiii Introduction: The Mughal Empire’s Dynamic Composition in 1 Time and Space Timeline 11 Part I: The Central Asian and Indian Origins of the Mughal Empire, 1526–40, 1555–6 Chapter 1: Babur until His Conquest of North India in 1526 15 Chapter 2: Indians and Emperor Babur Create the Mughal 34 Empire, 1526–30 Chapter 3: Emperor Humayun and Indians, 1530–40, 56 1555–6 Part II: Establishment of the Mughal Empire under Emperor Akbar, 1556–1605 Chapter 4: Emperor Akbar Makes Himself the Center of the 73 Mughal Empire Chapter 5: Emperor Akbar and His Core Courtiers Build the 93 Mughal Administration and Army Chapter 6: Emperor Akbar’s Courts, Ideologies and Wars, 108 by Main Capital vii . Sri Satguru Jagjit Singh Ji eLibrary [email protected] . Michael H. Fisher Part III: The Mughal Empire Established, 1605–1707 Chapter 7: Emperor Jahangir and the Efflorescence of the 143 Imperial Court, 1605–27 Chapter 8: Emperor Shah Jahan and Building Up the Mughal 166 Empire, 1628–58/66 Chapter 9: Expanding the Frontiers and Facing Challenges 186 under Emperor ‘Alamgir, 1658–1707 Part IV: The Fragmentation and Memory of the Mughal Empire, 1707–the Present Chapter 10: The Thinning of the Empire, 1707–1857 209 Chapter 11: Contested Meanings of the Mughal Empire into 226 the Twenty-first Century Notes 241 Bibliography 251 Index 263 viii . Sri Satguru Jagjit Singh Ji eLibrary [email protected] . List of Charts, Maps and Illustrations (unless otherwise noted, the work of the author) Cover: Emperor Jahangir (r. 1605–27) Shooting Poverty While Astride the Globe, attributed to Abu-al-Hasan, c. 1620– 25 (detail). Courtesy Los Angeles County Museum of Art (M.75.4.28) www.LACMA.org Charts Chart 1: Mughal Emperors (with Reign) and Imperial Princes 7 (to 1707) Chart 2: Later Mughal Emperors (with Reign) 215 Maps Map 1: Babur’s World to 1526 16 Map 2: South Asian Macro-regions and Main Physical Features 35 Map 3: Major States and Regions as of 1526 46 Map 4: Humayun’s World during His Indian Reigns 60 Map 5: Akbar’s World on Accession, 1556 75 Map 6: Fatehpur 119 Map 7: Plan of ‘Exalted Fort,’ known as ‘Red Fort’ 177 ix . Sri Satguru Jagjit Singh Ji eLibrary [email protected] .