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Advances in Oil and Gas Exploration & Production Timothy Tylor-Jones Leonardo Azevedo A Practical Guide to Seismic Reservoir Characterization Advances in Oil and Gas Exploration & Production Series Editor Rudy Swennen, Department of Earth and Environmental Sciences, K.U. Leuven, Heverlee, Belgium The book series Advances in Oil and Gas Exploration & Production pub- lishes scientific monographs on a broad range of topics concerning geo- physicalandgeologicalresearchonconventionalandunconventionaloiland gas systems, and approaching those topics from both an exploration and a production standpoint. The series is intended to form a diverse library of reference works by describing the current state of research on selected themes,suchascertaintechniquesusedinthepetroleumgeosciencebusiness orregionalaspects.Allbooksin theseries arewrittenand edited byleading experts actively engaged in the respective field. The Advances in Oil and Gas Exploration & Production series includes both single andmulti-authored books, aswell aseditedvolumes.TheSeries Editor, Dr. Rudy Swennen (KU Leuven, Belgium), is currently accepting proposals and a proposal form can be obtained from our representative at Springer, Dr. Alexis Vizcaino ([email protected]). Timothy Tylor-Jones Leonardo Azevedo (cid:129) A Practical Guide to Seismic Reservoir Characterization 123 Timothy Tylor-Jones Leonardo Azevedo ProductionandOperations CERENA/DECivil bp Instituto Superior Técnico Sunbury,UK Universidade deLisboa Lisboa, Portugal ISSN 2509-372X ISSN 2509-3738 (electronic) Advances in Oil andGasExploration & Production ISBN978-3-030-99853-0 ISBN978-3-030-99854-7 (eBook) https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-030-99854-7 ©TheEditor(s)(ifapplicable)andTheAuthor(s),underexclusivelicensetoSpringer NatureSwitzerlandAG2022 Thisworkissubjecttocopyright.AllrightsaresolelyandexclusivelylicensedbythePublisher, whether the whole or part of the material is concerned, specifically the rights of translation, reprinting,reuseofillustrations,recitation,broadcasting,reproductiononmicrofilmsorinany otherphysicalway,andtransmissionorinformationstorageandretrieval,electronicadaptation, computersoftware,orbysimilarordissimilarmethodologynowknownorhereafterdeveloped. Theuseofgeneraldescriptivenames,registerednames,trademarks,servicemarks,etc.inthis publication does not imply, even in the absence of a specific statement, that such names are exemptfromtherelevantprotectivelawsandregulationsandthereforefreeforgeneraluse. Thepublisher,theauthors,andtheeditorsaresafetoassumethattheadviceandinformationin thisbookarebelievedtobetrueandaccurateatthedateofpublication.Neitherthepublishernor the authors or the editors give a warranty, expressed or implied, with respect to the material containedhereinorforanyerrorsoromissionsthatmayhavebeenmade.Thepublisherremains neutralwithregardtojurisdictionalclaimsinpublishedmapsandinstitutionalaffiliations. Disclaimer:Theviewsandopinionsexpressedinthispublicationarethoseoftheauthorsanddo notreflecttheviewsorpositionsofanyentitiestheycurrentlyrepresentorhaverepresentedin thepastorhaveprofessionalaffiliationwith. ThisSpringerimprintispublishedbytheregisteredcompanySpringerNatureSwitzerlandAG Theregisteredcompanyaddressis:Gewerbestrasse11,6330Cham,Switzerland We dedicate this book to our families Acknowledgements Theoriginalconceptofthisbookwasdevelopedafterajointresearchproject conceptualized anddevelopedunder thesupervisionofbothauthors.Atthat time, the main idea was to write a reference book that could be used by graduate students and young professionals joining the energy industry. The text would simultaneously provide a practical perspective and enough the- oretical background on modern geo-modelling workflows focusing on the steps related to subsurface modelling and characterization using seismic reflection data. Hopefully, we were able to accomplish such objectives by leveraging our experience within the energy industry and academia. The development of each chapter reflects our complementary backgrounds with alltheprosandcons.Thisbookisthereforetheresultofexperienceacquired during our professional paths and consequently there are several people that need to be acknowledged. The first should be Tiago Ribeiro who first introduced both of us and then Mariana Martinho who succeeded in getting an MSc. degree under our supervision. The bringing together of so many different concepts of geophysics required a broad and deep knowledge of both theory and practical applica- tion. I would like to acknowledge the guidance, support and mentoring of John Etgen, Mel Ball, Walter Rietveld, Sarah Buchanan who took time out oftheirlivestohelptheauthorswiththisendeavour.Aspecialmentionmust be made to Felicity Tylor-Jones whose exceptional skills as a professional copyeditorandproofreaderhavetransformedthereadingexperienceofsuch a technical and at times complex subject into something very readable. An important contribution to this book originated from the research and development performed at the Centro de Recursos Naturais e Ambiente (CERENA) from Instituto Superior Técnico (Lisboa, Portugal) on topics relatedtogeostatisticalmodellingofthesubsurface.Themethodsintroduced in Chaps. 7 and 8 are an extension of the pioneering work of Prof. Amílcar Soaresincouplinggeophysicsandgeostatisicsforsubsurfacemodellingand characterization. Amílcar and Prof. Maria João Pereira have been mentors and friends of Leonardo Azevedo during the last decade. Without their contributionsandcontinuedsupportthisbookwouldnotbepossible.LAalso thanks all the Ph.D. and MSc. students who he was lucky to meet and work withduringtheseyears.Someoftheideasexpressedinthisbookaredirectly related to their research work. These students have benefited from the industry sponsors of the group, to which LA acknowledges. A special vii viii Acknowledgements acknowledge goes to João Narciso and Roberto Miele for their detailed revision of the manuscript and insightful comments. Finally, thanks to our families for the support and encouragement during the writing of this book. Timothy Tylor-Jones Leonardo Azevedo Contents 1 Introduction... .... ..... .... .... .... .... .... ..... .... 1 1.1 The General Workflow for Seismic Reservoir Characterization ..... .... .... .... .... .... ..... .... 2 References. .... .... ..... .... .... .... .... .... ..... .... 3 2 The Seismic Method ..... .... .... .... .... .... ..... .... 5 2.1 Basics of Wavefield Propagation .... .... .... ..... .... 5 2.1.1 Stress and Strain ... .... .... .... .... ..... .... 6 2.1.2 Elastic Moduli. .... .... .... .... .... ..... .... 6 2.1.3 Types of Waves ... .... .... .... .... ..... .... 10 2.1.4 Seismic Waves and Rays. .... .... .... ..... .... 12 2.1.5 Geometry of Reflected Rays .. .... .... ..... .... 13 2.2 Fundamentals of the Seismic Survey . .... .... ..... .... 16 2.2.1 Geophysical Survey Signal ... .... .... ..... .... 16 2.2.2 What Does the Event on a Seismogram Represent?.... .... .... .... .... .... ..... .... 18 2.2.3 Relationship Between Particle Movement and Sine Wave .... .... .... .... .... ..... .... 19 2.2.4 The Fourier Transform .. .... .... .... ..... .... 23 2.2.5 Sampling..... .... .... .... .... .... ..... .... 24 2.2.6 Seismic Resolution . .... .... .... .... ..... .... 26 References. .... .... ..... .... .... .... .... .... ..... .... 31 3 Seismic Acquisition Essentials.. .... .... .... .... ..... .... 33 3.1 Seismic Energy Sources ... .... .... .... .... ..... .... 34 3.2 Passive Source Survey .... .... .... .... .... ..... .... 34 3.3 Active Source Survey. .... .... .... .... .... ..... .... 35 3.4 Offshore Survey ..... .... .... .... .... .... ..... .... 36 3.4.1 Marine Sources.... .... .... .... .... ..... .... 36 3.4.2 Bubbles. ..... .... .... .... .... .... ..... .... 39 3.4.3 Multi-source Surveys.... .... .... .... ..... .... 40 3.4.4 Streamers and Hydrophones .. .... .... ..... .... 42 3.4.5 Broadband Seismic Data. .... .... .... ..... .... 44 3.4.6 Ghost Reflections .. .... .... .... .... ..... .... 45 3.4.7 Survey Geometries . .... .... .... .... ..... .... 47 3.4.8 OBN and OBC .... .... .... .... .... ..... .... 51 3.5 Onshore Sources..... .... .... .... .... .... ..... .... 55 ix x Contents 3.5.1 Gravity Acceleration Sources . .... .... ..... .... 55 3.5.2 Explosive Sources.. .... .... .... .... ..... .... 55 3.5.3 Vibration Trucks... .... .... .... .... ..... .... 56 3.6 Onshore Receivers ... .... .... .... .... .... ..... .... 57 3.6.1 Geophones.... .... .... .... .... .... ..... .... 57 3.6.2 Digital Geophones.. .... .... .... .... ..... .... 59 3.6.3 Frequencies... .... .... .... .... .... ..... .... 59 3.7 Survey Geometries ... .... .... .... .... .... ..... .... 60 3.7.1 Receiver Lines. .... .... .... .... .... ..... .... 60 3.7.2 Source Shooting ... .... .... .... .... ..... .... 61 3.8 Seismic Survey Suitability . .... .... .... .... ..... .... 62 References. .... .... ..... .... .... .... .... .... ..... .... 65 4 Processing Essentials..... .... .... .... .... .... ..... .... 67 4.1 Wavelet Processing: De-Bubble, De-Ghost, Zero Phasing... .... ..... .... .... .... .... .... ..... .... 68 4.1.1 Far-Field Signature . .... .... .... .... ..... .... 69 4.1.2 De-Bubble.... .... .... .... .... .... ..... .... 69 4.1.3 Source De-Ghost and Zero-Phase .. .... ..... .... 70 4.2 Noise Removal. ..... .... .... .... .... .... ..... .... 71 4.2.1 Data Sampling. .... .... .... .... .... ..... .... 71 4.2.2 Filters, Transforms and Stacking... .... ..... .... 72 4.2.3 Coherent Noise .... .... .... .... .... ..... .... 76 4.2.4 Linear Noise .. .... .... .... .... .... ..... .... 76 4.2.5 Guided Waves. .... .... .... .... .... ..... .... 77 4.2.6 Ground Roll .. .... .... .... .... .... ..... .... 77 4.2.7 Diffractions ... .... .... .... .... .... ..... .... 78 4.2.8 Reverberations. .... .... .... .... .... ..... .... 78 4.2.9 Incoherent Noise... .... .... .... .... ..... .... 79 4.3 Multiples.. .... ..... .... .... .... .... .... ..... .... 80 4.3.1 Multiples Interpretation.. .... .... .... ..... .... 80 4.3.2 Multiples in Migration... .... .... .... ..... .... 82 4.3.3 Well-Logs.... .... .... .... .... .... ..... .... 83 4.3.4 Multiples and AVO. .... .... .... .... ..... .... 83 4.3.5 Multiples Removal Techniques.... .... ..... .... 84 4.3.6 Interbed Multiples.. .... .... .... .... ..... .... 87 4.4 Velocity Models in Seismic Processing ... .... ..... .... 89 4.4.1 Well Data, Check Shots and VSPs . .... ..... .... 90 4.4.2 Velocities for Migration . .... .... .... ..... .... 90 4.4.3 Stacking Velocities . .... .... .... .... ..... .... 91 4.4.4 Average Velocities . .... .... .... .... ..... .... 92 4.4.5 Root-Mean-Square Velocities . .... .... ..... .... 92 4.4.6 Interval Velocities.. .... .... .... .... ..... .... 92 4.5 Time-To-Depth Conversion .... .... .... .... ..... .... 92 4.5.1 Interpretation Considerations.. .... .... ..... .... 93 4.5.2 Data Sources.. .... .... .... .... .... ..... .... 94 4.5.3 Model Building Approaches .. .... .... ..... .... 95