A history of South Sudan: from slavery to independence

191 Pages·2016·1.996 MB·English

by  Øystein H. Rolandsen, M. W. Daly.

A HISTORY OF SOUTH SUDAN
South Sudan is the world’s youngest independent country.
Established in 2011 after two wars, South Sudan has since reverted
to a state of devastating civil strife. This book is the first general
history of the new country, from the arrival of Turco-Egyptian
explorers in the upper Nile, the turbulence of the Mahdist revolu-
tionaryperiod,thechaosofthe“ScrambleforAfrica,”duringwhich
theSouthwaspreytoEuropeanandAfricanadventurersandempire
builders,totheAnglo-Egyptiancolonialera.Specialattentionispaid
to the period since Sudanese independence in 1956, when Southern
disaffectiongrewintooutrightwar,fromthe1960sto1972andfrom
1983untiltheComprehensivePeaceof2005,andtothetransitionto
SouthSudan’sindependence.Thebookconcludeswithcoverageof
events since then, which, since December 2013, have assumed the
character of civil war, and with insights into what the future might
hold.
o/ ystein h. rolandsen is a senior researcher at the Peace
ResearchInstituteinOslo.Hehaswrittenextensivelyonthehistory
andcurrentaffairsofthetwoSudans,aswellasontheeasternAfrican
region.
m. w. daly hasheldacademicpositionsintheUSA,theUK,and
the Middle East. He is the author or coauthor of many works on
Sudan,including(withP.M.Holt)AHistoryoftheSudan,2011,now
in its sixth edition; Darfur’s Sorrow (Cambridge, 2010), now in its
secondedition;andImperialSudan(Cambridge,1991).
Published online by Cambridge University Press
Published online by Cambridge University Press
A HISTORY OF SOUTH SUDAN
From Slavery to Independence
ØYSTEIN H. ROLANDSEN
M. W. DALY
Published online by Cambridge University Press
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©ØysteinH.RolandsenandM.W.Daly2016
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Rolandsen,ØysteinH.,author.
AhistoryofSouthSudanfromslaverytoindependence/ØysteinH.RolandsenandM.W.Daly.
pages cm
Includesbibliographicalreferencesandindex.
isbn978-0-521-11631-2
1. SouthSudan–Politicsandgovernment. 2. SouthSudan–History. 3. Sudan–Politics
andgovernment–1985– I. Daly,M.W.,author. II. Title.
dt159.94.r65 2016
962.9–dc23
2015036420
isbn978-0-521-11631-2Hardback
isbn978-0-521-13325-8Paperback
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Contents
Preface pagevii
Chronology ix
ListofabbreviationsandArabicterms xvi
Map xviii
1 Introduction:thelandandpeoplesoftheupperNile 1
2 Ivoryandslaves:thenineteenthcentury 10
3 ThesecondTurkiyya,1898–1953 32
4 Thecurseofcolonialcontinuity,1953–1963 65
5 Thefirstcivilwar,1963–1972 79
6 Regionalgovernment:fromonecivilwartoanother,1972–1983 93
7 Eclipsedbywar,1983–1991 105
8 Factionalpolitics,1991–2001 120
9 Makingunityimpossible,2002–2011 133
10 IndependentSouthSudan 151
Bibliographicalessay 160
Index 168
v
Published online by Cambridge University Press
Published online by Cambridge University Press
Preface
AHistoryofSouthSudanaddressesseveralaudiencesandawidevarietyof
issues. We have chosen a conventional chronological approach, but a
number of themes recur. Above all, we aim to illuminate two questions
in the history of this new country: How did South Sudan become a
politicalandadministrativeentity?AndwhydiditseparatefromSudan?
Answeringthesequestionsrequiresanewlookatstandardversions,for
the historiography of South Sudan reflects entrenched and often diame-
trically opposed political views. Some nationalists’ mission to create a
South Sudanese national identity has led to the invention of a “natural”
and timeless political and cultural unit. But we know remarkably little
aboutwhatmostpeopleeventodaythinkitmeanstobeSouthSudanese.
Although this book is not a “history of an idea,” we examine some
processes and events that contributed to shaping one. When South
Sudanese voted, in January 2011, the proffered alternative to separation
fromSudanwasconfederation andconsiderable autonomy:SouthSudan
would be recognized as a political and administrative unit within Sudan.
Yetthevotewentoverwhelminglyforindependence.Howdeep,andwith
whatparticularramifications,wasthesentimentforseparation?
After all, the history of South Sudan over the past two centuries is of
steadily increasing interaction between its peoples and the outside world.
And since the mid-twentieth century, South Sudanese have migrated (or
fled)inmillionstoSudan,toneighboringcountries,andbeyond.Today,
thereareSouthSudanesecommunitiesinmostcornersoftheworld.Some
haveimpactedtheplacestowhichtheyhavemoved;manyhavereturned
to South Sudan with new allies and ideas. Thus, patterns of interaction
have varied considerably over time and from place to place. So also have
South Sudanese responses, their motives, and the opportunities for
exchangeandtransformationthatinteractionopenedup.Thisbookaims
to present at least broad outlines of how these opportunities came about
andtowhatusesSouthSudaneseputtheminpursuitoftheirowngoals.
vii
https://doi.org/10.1017/CBO9781139035538.001 Published online by Cambridge University Press
viii Preface
The term “South Sudan” has also become associated with war and
humansuffering.Asyetanotherlarge-scaleconflictunfolds,itisimportant
toemphasizethatthisisnotsenselessviolenceortheresultofincompetent
politicians’ miscalculations, but the outcome of historical processes
restrictedandshapedbyexternalandinstitutionalconditions.Thehistory
of South Sudan is, in part, not only a product of violence, systems of
oppression, and patterns of resistance but also a story of resilience and of
theharnessingandmasteringofthegeographical,climatic,economic,and
social contexts in which the people of this new country have found
themselves.
In a brief and sweeping book like this, abbreviation and omissions are
inevitable. Our goal is to present a fair and balanced account of the
interplay between the broader structural forces of history and the chief
agentsofpoliticsandwarfare,thatis,governments,politicalparties,armed
groups, community leaders, and businessmen, which drove South Sudan
towardindependence.Bythis,wehopetocorrect(andindeedtoanalyze)
the tendency in foreign source materials to depict outsiders as agents of
change(howeverdefinedorcharacterized) andSouthSudanese aspassive
(orirrational,orsubversive)receptors.
Beyond what we can learn from oral tradition and archeology, South
Sudan’sprecolonial history remains obscure. In consequence, the bookis
dividedintotwomaineras:thatofcolonializationandcolonialism,andthe
period from 1956 to 2011 whenSouth Sudan waspart of the independent
Sudan. The years since South Sudan’s independence are briefly discussed
in Chapter 10. The bibliographical essay at the end gives a rudimentary
introduction to the historiography of South Sudan and lists references to
pioneeringworkswhichofferin-depthanalysisandinformationconcern-
ingaspectsofthiscountry’shistory.Butmuchstillremainstobedone,and
if this book can inspire or provoke such endeavors we will consider our
missionaccomplished.
https://doi.org/10.1017/CBO9781139035538.001 Published online by Cambridge University Press
Chronology
1839 First Egyptian expedition to the upper
Nile.
1881–98 MahdistrevolutionendsTurco-Egyptian
rule in northern Sudan (1885) and over-
whelmsremainingoutpostsinsouth.
1899 Establishment of Anglo-Egyptian
Condominium.
1930 End of “Nuer settlement” and armed
SouthSudaneseresistance.
January1930 “SouthernPolicy”adumbrated.
1946 “SouthernPolicy”officiallyrevoked.
June1947 FirstJubaConference:SouthSudaneseto
send representatives to National
LegislativeAssembly.
July1947 Striking workers in Juba demand pay
equaltoNortherners’.
February1953 Anglo-EgyptianAgreementstipulatesend
ofcolonialrulewithinthreeyears.
November1953 Firstnationalelection.
October1954 “Sudanization” outcome announced;
Southernerswinsixpostsofdistrictcom-
missioner and assistant district
commissioner.
October1954 Second Juba conference: chiefs, civil ser-
vants,andpoliticiansdemandfederalism.
July1955 Nzaraprotestviolentlysuppressed.
August18,1955 Torit Mutiny sparks weeks-long
“Southern Disturbances”; subsequently
putdownbySDF.
ix
https://doi.org/10.1017/CBO9781139035538.002 Published online by Cambridge University Press
x Chronology
January1956 RepublicofSudanestablished.
1957 Nationalizationofmissionaryschools.
February1958 Secondnationalelection.
November1958 Coup overthrows Sudanese government,
beginningsixyearsofmilitaryrule.
February1960 Southernschoolsclosedafterstudentpro-
tests; grievances include replacement of
SundaywithFridayasdayofrest.
Early1962 Sudan African Closed Districts National
Unionestablishedinexile.
October1962 Southern students strike; thousands flee
toneighboringcountries.
November1962 “Regulations for Missionary Societies”
restrict foreign missionaries; expulsions
ensue.
July/August1963 Anya-NyafoundedinKampala.
September1963 Attacksin the Upper Nile and Equatoria
sparkcivilwar.
January1964 Anya-NyaattackWau;warengulfssouth-
ernprovinces.
February1964 Allforeignmissionariesexpelled.
November1964 Military regime falls; Southerners join
Transitional Government; Southern
FrontemergesinKhartoum.
March1965 Round Table Conference on South held
inKhartoum.
April1965 National elections return traditional par-
tiestopower.
July1965 Government soldiers carry out massacres
inJubaandWau.
May1969 Coup overthrows government; Col.
Jaafar Nimeiri emerges as leader, rules
until1985.
February1972 SigningofAddisAbabapeaceaccord.
October1973 First election to Southern Regional
Assembly; Abel Alier becomes president
ofHEC.
1974–7 Former Anya-Nya soldiers mutiny in
Juba (1974, February 1977), Akobo
(1975),andWau(1976).
https://doi.org/10.1017/CBO9781139035538.002 Published online by Cambridge University Press