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^Ici0 A HISTORY OF EUROPE From 911 to 1198 HY Z. N. BROOKE L1TT.D., F.B.A. ruutENSUR (»r MEDIEVAL UNTuUY IN TUB UNIVERSITY up UAMmUJJUlC, yellow of uonvilm: ami uauns i uiaebb WITH ONE MU'- fiRPUNH ItimiuM METHUEN A CO. UTI). LONDON vti Essex Street, H'.C.- 5 24/f# . *■ VMS'* V*- * _ a;/ * svt±f n <*■' '1 <?2Z First published . November 3rd 1938 Second Edition , . 1947 CATALOGUE NO. 4351/0 PRINTED IN GREAT BRITAIN T PREFACE HE arrangement of this volume needs, per¬ haps, some explanation. It is no easy matter to describe the history of numerous European States (for only the internal history of the British Isles is omitted from the scheme of the series), and at the same time to preserve some unity in the telling. I have attempted this by developing three main themes—the Empire (later, Empire and Papacy), Christianity and Islam (or, alternatively, East and West), and France, which if subsidiary at first de¬ velops into a main theme later on. Each of these I have traced in four stages : up to the middle of the eleventh century, in the second half of that century, and in the two halves of the twelfth century. In the first two periods the other topics have been dealt with as subordinate parts of the greater themes, but they have been given a more detailed and indi¬ vidual description in general chapters inserted in the middle of the twelfth century. The question of nomenclature raises a further problem. I have adhered, with a few exceptions, to the system adopted in the Cambridge Medieval History, though with some misgivings. In a book written for English readers it is obviously right to speak of Rome, Venice, Milan, and even Cologne, but I am not very happy about writing Mayenee for Mainz and Treves for Trier. A difficulty arises tor the reader, to dis¬ tinguish the numerous Conrads, Ilenrys, Ottos, &c., from each other. Here I hope that the guidance given in the Index, supplemented by the genealogical tables, will be sufficient. EUROPE FROM 911 TO 1198 VI In one respect this volume differs from its pre¬ decessors in the series, in the absence (apart from an introductory outline of Europe) of sketch maps. This was found necessary, owing to the recent heavy rise in the costs of book-production, in order to avoid the greater evil of an increase in the price of the book. Though I had prepared other maps, I was only too glad to jettison them. I have never found small-scale uncoloured maps to be of any value; an historical student must equip himself with an historical atlas containing coloured maps. My attitude to the biblio¬ graphies, which may invite some criticism, I have explained in a preliminary note. This book has occupied my spare time during the past seven years, and I can only hope that it does not betray too many signs of having been written thus, unavoidably, piecemeal. I have certain, most grate¬ ful, acknowledgements to make. Firstly, to my wife, who undertook the typing of the whole manuscript. Secondly, to my colleague, Mr. Philip Grierson, who read through the typed manuscript and enabled me to make a number of important and necessary cor¬ rections before the book was in proof. Lastly, to my wife again, and also to my three sons, who rendered me invaluable assistance throughout the reading of the proofs and in the laborious task of compiling the Index. Z. N. B. September, 1938 CONTENTS TAOE BIBLIOGRAPHICAL NOTE xix INTRODUCTION. EUROPE IN THE NINTH CENTURY 1 The Empire of Charlemagne; its disruption; division into kingdoms; the ninth-century invasions ; feebleness of royal authority; the beginnings of feudalism ; con¬ trast of theory and practice; Germany " much less feudalised than France ; the division into kingdoms after 887 ; the disintegration of France ; greater cohesion in Germany; the tribal duchies ; the Church in France and Germany ; the Italian kingdom ; the Papacy:: its rise and decline; potentialities in the papal office ; map of Europe at the beginning of the tenth century ; perilous condition of Western Christendom; the Vikings; the Slavs ; the sphere of the Eastern Empire ; the Moslems in Spain ; importance of sca-power; dawn of a brighter outlook PART I TO THE MIDDLE OF THE ELEVENTH CENTURY CHAP; I. THE NEW MONARCHY IN GERMANY 19 The new German monarchy; the practice of election; the character of royal government; the policy of the dukes; election of Conrad I (911-18); his incapacity; the Church as the ally of monarchy ; missionary diameter of the German Church ; its five provinces ; the synod of Hohenalthcim (910); the election of Henry I (919-80); his mastery of the dukes ; truce with the Magyars ; the military reorganisation of Saxony; expeditions against the Slavs; defeat of the Magyars; expedition against the Danes; the achievement of Henry I; Otto I (930-78); his imperial ambition; ecclesiastical coronation at Aix; the difficulties confronting the new king ; Bohemia ; the northern Slavs ; the Magyars ; the revolt of the dukes ; the king of France and Lorraine ; the mastery of Otto ; his plan of government; the Italian kingdom; Hugh of Arles ; Home dominated by Thcophylact; the career of his daughter Marozia; her son Alberic supersedes her; Burgundy and Provence united into one kingdom; Hugh of Arles expelled from Italy ; the appeal to Otto l; Otto’s control in the Burgundian kingdom; Otto's first Italian expedition; feud of the dukes of Suubia and Lorraine with the duke of Bavaria ; civil war in Germany ; submission of the rebels; defeat of the Magyars on the viii EUROPE FROM 911 TO 1198 CHAP. PAGE Lechfeld (955) ; effects of Otto’s victory ; his new scheme of government; the duchies ; check on ducal authority not provided by counts-palatine ; Otto’s reliance on the bishops ; his control of appointments ; the ultimate ill- effects of the system ; its immediate advantages II. THE EMPIRE OF THE OTTOS 46 Otto I’s second expedition to Italy ; his coronation as Emperor (962) ; the Empire of Otto the Great compared with that of Charlemagne ; the government of the Italian kingdom ; the immediate and the ultimate effects of the union of Italy and Germany ; Otto’s contest with the ^Roman nobles for the control of the Papacy ; his policy in South Italy; Otto II crowned co-Emperor (9C7); marriage of Otto II with the Byzantine princess Theo- phano (972) ; death of Otto the Great ; Otto II (973-83) ; the difficulties of Otto IPs early years : (1) the revolt of duke Henry of Bavaria ; (2) the French king and Lorraine ; (3) Denmark ; protracted contest with Henry of Bavaria and his allies ; invasion of Lorraine by the French king and counter-invasion of France by Otto ; the situation in Italy ; Otto’s expedition to Italy ; his defeat by the Moslems (982) ; his plan of a second expedi¬ tion frustrated by his death ; the revolt of tlie northern Slavs ; Otto III (983-1002) ; the attempt of Henry of Bavaria to gain control of the government ; Theophano as guardian of the young king (983-91) ; her able conduct of the government ; Adelaide as guardian (991-4) ; the early training of Otto III ; the situation in Italy ; the Crescentii in control of Rome and tlie Papacy ; Otto Ill’s first expedition to Italy ; appointment of ms cousin Bruno as Pope ; Otto’s second Italian expedition ; Gerbert of Aurillac ; the revolt of the Crescentii and Otto’s retaliation; appointment of Gerbert as Pope ; the “ Renovatio imperii Romanorum ” ; its religious aspect; mystical influences on the young Emperor ; the imperial pilgrimage in the year 1000 ; revolt of the Romans ; death of Otto III; the glamour of his short career ; the disastrous effects of his policy (a) in the German kingdom ; (b) in the Italian kingdom III. THE EMPIRE, 1002-1046 67 The situation in 1002; the work of reconstruction (1002-40) ; the election of Henry II (1002-24) ; his character and policy ; disturbances in Bavaria and Lor¬ raine ; Henry’s limitations ; the position of the duchies ; royal resources ; reliance on, and control of, the Church ; Henry’s autocracy in ecclesiastical matters ; the eastern frontier States ; Poland under Boleslav the Mighty ; Henry’s failure in Burgundy ; Henry’s first expedition to Italy ; his second expedition ; imperial coronation (1014) ; relations with the Pope ; Henry’s third Italian expedition ; ecclesiastical difficulties in Germany ; death of Henry II ; summary of his reign ; the election of Conrad II (1024-39) ; his character ; the contrast with Henry II; use of royal minislerialcs ; his relations with the nobles ; dispute over the Burgundian inheritance; revolt in Italy; Conrad’s first Italian expedition; imperial CONTENTS ix CHAP. PAGE coronation (1027) ; acquisition of the Burgundian king¬ dom ; recovery of German authority in Poland ; unsuc¬ cessful conflict with Hungary ; Bohemian revolt over¬ come ; alliance with Canute the Great ; Conrad’s policy of linking Italy with Germany ; civil war between the capitanei and the valvassores ; Conrad’s settlement in favour of the valvassores ; revolt of the archbishop of Milan ; Conrad in South Italy ; his death ; Henry III (1039-56) ; Bohemian revolt overcome ; Hungary recognises German overlordship ; Henry III and the duchies ; revolt of Godfrey of Upper Lorraine ; the prospect in 1046 ; the situation at Home ; Henry comes to Rome ; the reform of the Papacy ; South Italy and its divisions ; the coming of the Normans ; the family of Tailored de Ilauteville IV. FRANCE, 911-1050 93 Weakness of the monarchy in France ; the separateness of the South ; Aquitaine ; Gascony, Toulouse, Barcelona ; the northern half of the kingdom ; Brittany, Normandy, Flanders, Burgundy ; the march of Neustria ; Charles the Simple and Lorraine ; Robert of Neuslria rival-king; the reign of Raoul of Burgundy ; condition of the king¬ dom ; improvement during Raoul's reign ; Hugh the Great of Neustria and king Louis IV ; the intervention of Otto I ; the reign of Lot liar ; his ambition in Lorraine ; the end of the Carolingian line in France ; accession of Hugh Capet (987) ; the Cupelian dynasty and hereditary succession; advantages of the Capetians over their Carolingian predecessors ; causes of continued weakness of the monarchy ; alliance of Hugh Capet with Normandy ; conflict with surviving Carolingians leads to quarrel with Papacy ; Robert II (996-1031) ; conflict with the Papacy over his marriage ; weakness of his government ; vin¬ dicates his claim to the duchy of Burgundy ; relations with Germany; Henry I (1031-00) ; cedes Burgundy to his brother ; the growing power of Anjou ; alliance of Henry with Normandy against Anjou ; Henry’s volte face ; its consequences no V. THE REVIVAL OF CHRISTIANITY Effects on the Church of the political disasters of the ninth and tenth centuries ; the progress towards recovery ; advance of Christianity against paganism ; the expulsion of the Moslems from France and Italy ; the Caliphate of Cordova (929-1031) ; beginnings of the Ueeonqucst; the Christian kingdoms in Spain ; Church reform ; the monasteries ; Cluny in the tenth century ; Lorraine in the tenth century ; the Cluniac movement in the eleventh century ; the movement in Lorraine in the eleventh century ; its influence elsewhere ; reform of the secular clergy ; its direction not due to Cluny; hut to lay rulers and bishops ; simony; clerical marriage ; lay control ; the Trttce and the Peace of God ; lack of central organisation ; papal authority in law ami precedent ; the character of Church law ; the influence of the Cltmiue movement; the reform of the Papacy X EUROPE FROM 911 TO 1198 CHAP. PAGE VI. THE EASTERN EMPIRE, 912-1056 126 The place of the Eastern Empire in European history ; its influence on Western civilisation ; the Macedonian dynasty ; Basil I and Leo VI; the minority of Constan¬ tine VII ; reign of Romanus Lecapenus ; the Bulgarian Empire under Simeon ; its decline after his death ^927) ; overthrow of Romanus ; Constantine VII recovers power ; the minority of Basil II ; reign of Nicephorus Phocas ; his military achievements ; his unpopularity and murder ; reign of John Tzimisces ; Basil II in power ; civil wars ; danger from Bulgaria ; Basil in the East; Armenia ; the conquest of Bulgaria ; last years of Basil II; the Empire at its zenith ; weaknesses in the imperial organisation ; the successors of Basil ; Constantine VIII and his daughters ; Zoe and her husbands ; Theodora ; the power of the Church ; the subjection of Armenia and its consequences ; the strife between the civil and military authorities ; the coming of the Seljuks PART 11 THE SECOND HALF OF THE ELEVENTH CENTURY VII. THE EMPIRE, 1046-1075 143 The summit of Henry Ill’s power ; decline in his later years ; the revolts of Godfrey of Lorraine ; the loss of Hungary ; Henry’s disposition of the duchies ; Adalbert of Bremen and the Saxons ; Henry’s illness and death ; the minority of Henry IV; his mother’s weak rule ; Godfrey of Lorraine in Italy ; Hungary, Poland, and Bohemia; archbishop Anno of Cologne usurps the government ; superseded by archbishop Adalbert ; end of the minority ; upbringing and character of Henry IV ; his prospects as ruler ; his policy ; revolt of Otto of Bavaria and Magnus Billung ; Henry’s strong position in 1072 ; revolt of the Saxons in 1073 ; humiliation of the king ; the royal recovery and defeat of the Saxons ; Henry’s misjudgment of the situation VIII. THE BUILDING-UP OP THE PAPAL MONARCHY 155 The reformed Papacy ; Henry Ill’s position ; Pope Leo IX ; his cardinals ; his holding of councils, at Rome and elsewhere ; the effect of his work ; his disastrous cam¬ paign against the Normans ; the Schism between the Eastern and Western Churches (1054) ; Pope Victor II; the changed situation after Henry Ill’s death ; Pope Stephen IX ; Nicholas II and Benedict X ; victory of the reformers ; the Papal Election Decree (1059); other decrees of the Council; peace with the Normans ; the significance of the treaty of Melfl ; the opposition created by the papal programme ; its attempt to establish Cadalus of Parma as Pope ; the cardinals elect Alexander II; his victory over his rival; Alexander IPs papacy a period of comparative inaction ; some solid gains ; Pope Gregory VII (1073—85) ; his personality ; the policy and methods of his early years ; his relations—with Germany ; with CONTENTS XI PAGE CHAP. France ; with England ; the issue of lay control; the decree against lay investiture (1075) ; the Dictatus Papae ” ; his legislation in the years 107S-9 ; Papal authority in France ; friction with William the Con¬ queror ; Gregory’s claims to temporal authority; in¬ security of papal suzerainty ; Ravenna ; the Normans ; Gregory’s success in the ecclesiastical sphere IX. THE FIRST CONTEST OF EMPIRE AND PAPACY, 1076-110G 177 The Gelasian theory ; interpretation of this by the Papacy; the standpoint of Pope Gregory VII ; the imperial point of view ; the clash between the two theories ; events at Milan ; the revolt of the Pataria ; the various interests coneei'ned ; the attitude of Henry IV ; his first breach with the Papacy ; the reconciliation of 1073 ; Henry’s challenge in 1075 ; the Pope’s reply ; outbreak of the lirst contest of Rrmtirf> and (1076) ; the coalition against Henry; h - i.■■ - Canossa (Jan. 1077) ; the election of the anti-king Rudolf; civil war in Germany (1077-80) ; attitude of the Pope ; his final decision against Ilenry in 1080 ; Henry sets up an anti-pope; death of the anti-king Rudolf; the Pope comes to terms with the Normans ; the sieges and capture of Rome by Henry; imperial coronation ; the Normans rescue the Pope; his death in exile; Pope Victor III (1080-7) ; Pope Urban II (1088-99) ; papal advance in North Italy; Henry makes ponce with tin* Saxons ; defeat of Henry in Italy ; the Papacy restored to Rome ; Urban IPs progress through North Italy and France ; Urban’s government of the Church ; his last years ; Henry IV in Germany ; end of the civil war ; Pope Paschal II ; revolt of Henry V against his father ; death of Henry IV (1106); end of the schism between Empire and Papacy X. FRANCE IN THE SECOND HALF OF THE ELEVENTH CENTURY 204 Ill effects of Henry I’s enmity with Normandy ; Philip I (1060-1108); the authority of the Papacy in France; the early years of Philip I ; the royal domain ; the great feudatories take no part in royal government; the house¬ hold officials ; the brigand-nobles of the domain ; South France; Normandy ; Anjou ; Flanders ; France and England ; the results of Philip’s second marriage ; the position of bishop Ivo of Chartres ; Philip’s son Louis begins to take control XI. CHRISTIANITY AND ISLAM 216 The nature of the conflicts between Christianity and Islam ; Spain—the end of the Caliphate of Cordova ; Christian advance under Ferdinand I of Castile ; lack of unity in Christian Spain ; Alfonso VI of Castile captures Toledo (1085) ; relations with the Papacy ; Moslem Spain re¬ united under the Almoravides ; the career of the Cid ; Sicily—the Norman conquest of South Italy ; capture of Messina in Sicily (1061); capture of Palermo (1072); EUROPE FROM 911 TO 1198 XII CHAP. PAG Robert Guiscard’s interests elsewhere; count Roger gradually conquers the whole of Sicily ; the power and policy of Roger I; The Western Mediterranean—Venice ; Pisa and Genoa ; results of the capture of Mahdiyah (1087) ; the weakness of the Eastern Empire ; Isaac Comnenus ; Constantine X ; Romanus Diogenes ; the Abbasid Caliphate ; the Fatimite Caliphate in Egypt; rise of the Seljuk Turks ; their victory at Manzikert (1071) ; advance of the Seljuks, and their divisions ; the Sultanate of Rum ; condition of the Eastern Empire ; Alexius I Comnenus becomes Emperor (1081) ; his foreign and domestic policy ; conflict with the Normans ; his other difficulties ; Urban II inaugurates the First Crusade (1005) ; its antecedents ; the Western point of view; material interests ; religious zeal the primary motive ; enhancement of the papal power ; the attitude and policy of the Eastern Emperor ; the assembling of the Crusaders at Constantinople ; their agreement with Alexius ; the march through Asia Minor ; the county of Edcssa ; the capture of Antioch ; beginning of friction between crusa¬ ders and Eastern Emperor ; the capture of Jerusalem; the county of Tripolis ; Godfrey of Bouillon the first ruler of Jerusalem PART III THE TWELFTH CENTURY XII. HENRY V AND THE INVESTITURE CONTEST 249 The period of the Investiture Struggle ; Henry V’s policy and prospects ; the ecclesiastical situation ; investiture contest in England ; Henry V’s attitude ; his march to Rome for the imperial crown ; the proposal of Paschal II ; the scene in St. Peter’s (Feb. 1111) ; Paschal’s sur¬ render ; the situation in Germany ; Bavaria ; Suabia; Saxony ; archbishop Adalbert; beginnings of revolt; second outbreak—Henry’s defeat in Saxony; Henry’s second expedition to Italy (1110); flight and death of Pope Paschal II ; Pope Gelasius II takes refuge in France ; Calixtus II Pope (1119) ; the German nobles intervene to make peace ; the Concordat of Worms (1122); the First Lateran Council (1123) ; last years of Henry V XIII. THE PERIOD OF PEACE BETWEEN EMPIRE AND PAPACY, 1125-1156 264 The period of peace ; the election of Lothar III ; adhesion of Henry the Black ; the support of the Church ; hostility of the Hohenstaufcn ; Conrad of Hohenstaufen’s adven¬ ture in Italy ; Roger II of Sicily ; the Norman duchy of Apulia ; Roger II acquires the duchy ; his strong govern¬ ment ; the papal schism of 1130 ; St. Bernard’s champion¬ ship of Innocent II; Anacletus II, supported by the Normans, confers title of king on Roger II; Lothar III crowned Emperor at Rome ; the Hohenstaufen forced to make peace ; Lothar again in Italy (1136) ; defeat of Roger H ; death of Lothar III; end of the papal schism;