A Grammar of Tapiete (Tupi-Guarani)

433 Pages·2005·4.428 MB·English

by  González, Hebe Alicia

A grammar of Tapiete (Tupi-Guarani)

by

Hebe Alicia González

Maîtrise en Science du Langage, Université Lumière Lyon-2, 1996

Diplôme d’Études Approfondies en Sciences du Langage, Université Lumière Lyon-2, 1997

Submitted to the Graduate Faculty of

Arts and Sciences in partial fulfillment

of the requirements for the degree of

Doctor of Philosophy

University of Pittsburgh

2005
UNIVERSITY OF PITTSBURGH

FACULTY OF ARTS AND SCIENCES

This dissertation was presented

by

Hebe Alicia González

It was defended on

May 11, 2005

and approved by

Terrence Kaufman

Alan Juffs

Pascual Masullo

Colette Grinevald

Terrence Kaufman
Dissertation Director

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A grammar of Tapiete (Tupi-Guarani)

Hebe Alicia González, PhD

University of Pittsburgh, 2005

This dissertation provides a linguistic description of Tapiete, a Tupi-Guarani (TG) language
spoken in Argentina, Bolivia and Paraguay. Fieldwork has been conducted in Argentina, where
about 80 Tapiete families are settled in “Misión Los Tapietes”, Tartagal, province of Salta,
northern Argentina. Thus, the linguistic data and the results of this study reflect the variety
spoken by the Tapietes living in Argentina. The main features of Tapiete phonology, the nominal
and the verbal morphology, as well as the syntactic structure are investigated. At the lexical
level, a vocabulary of 2049 entries and 400 subentries is provided based on the information
gathered through the elicitation of lexical questionnaires and texts.
Specifically, this dissertation investigates the expression of possession in Tapiete, as its default
marker of possession has developed from a functional extension of the default marker of
possession, t-, of Class II nouns in TG languages. In addition, a further formalization of the
alienable/inalienable opposition occurs, expressed through the existence of different sets of third
person markers.
In addition, this work discusses the restructuring of the cross-reference system in Tapiete.
Specially, it describes the lack of an overt marker of third person for verbs that belong to
Jensen’s Set 1, with the exception of monosyllabic roots, and the encoding of the first person
active and inactive plural exclusive through the verbal root marked for third person, together
with the affixation of the TG nominalizing morpheme -ha. In addition, the Tapiete version of
Jensen’s Set 4 person markers differs from that of TG languages: while in TG languages these
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forms are portmanteau morphemes that encode a first person singular or plural acting on a
second person singular (e.g. TG oro-) or a first person singular or plural acting on a second
person plural (e.g TG opo-), in Tapiete, both forms encode a first person singular, with no
possibility of their being interpreted as plural. Finally, Tapiete has developed a paradigm of
reflexive person markers that comes from a reinterpretation of the prefixation of the a- and i-
person markers which encode the agent and the patient, respectively.

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TABLE OF CONTENTS

PREFACE....................................................................................................................................xiii
1. Introduction.............................................................................................................................1
1.1. Research goals................................................................................................................1
1.1.1. Methodology...........................................................................................................2
1.1.2. Topics to be explored..............................................................................................2
1.2. Previous work on Tapiete and Tupí-Guaraní lanuguages...............................................3
1.3. Use of the results of this study........................................................................................5
1.4. Ethnography....................................................................................................................6
1.4.1. Geographic location................................................................................................7
1.4.2. Ethnic and linguistic affiliation...............................................................................7
1.4.2.1. Ethnic affiliation.............................................................................................7
1.4.2.2. Linguistic affiliation......................................................................................10
1.4.3. The ethnic matter..................................................................................................13
1.4.4. Historical background of the Tapiete people in Argentina...................................15
1.4.5. Religion.................................................................................................................18
1.4.6. Tapiete people and their relations with other indigenous groups.........................19
1.4.7. Some demographic data about ‘Misión Tapiete’..................................................21
1.4.8. Ethnic configuration of ‘Misión Tapiete’.............................................................22
1.4.8.1. Ethnic composition of couples in ‘Misión Tapiete’......................................23
1.4.9. Sociolinguistic situation........................................................................................25
1.4.9.1. Present situation and ways to a linguistic change.........................................25
1.4.10. General presentation of the educational level of Tapiete people..........................28
1.4.10.1. Tapiete and bilingual education....................................................................28
1.4.10.2. The role of bilingual assistants.....................................................................31
1.4.11. Conclusions...........................................................................................................34
1.5. Grammatical sketch......................................................................................................34
1.5.1. Phonology.............................................................................................................36
1.5.2. Morphosyntax.......................................................................................................36
1.6. Organization..................................................................................................................40
2. Phonology.............................................................................................................................42
2.1. Segmental phonology....................................................................................................43
2.1.1. Phonetic description of phonemes........................................................................44
2.1.1.1. Consonants....................................................................................................45
2.1.1.2. Vowels..........................................................................................................47
2.1.2. List of minimal pairs.............................................................................................48
2.1.2.1. Consonants....................................................................................................49
2.1.2.2. Vowels..........................................................................................................52
2.1.3. Allophonic variations............................................................................................54
2.1.4. Phonotactics..........................................................................................................61
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2.1.4.1. Frequency and distribution of segments.......................................................61
2.1.4.2. Co-occurrences.............................................................................................62
2.1.5. Conclusion............................................................................................................64
2.2. Nasal harmony..............................................................................................................64
2.2.1. Introduction...........................................................................................................64
2.2.1.1. Element that triggers nasalization.................................................................65
2.2.1.2. Pre-nasalized voiceless segments.................................................................66
2.2.2. Direction of the spread of nasalization.................................................................68
2.2.2.1. Regressive spread of nasalization.................................................................68
2.2.2.2. Progressive spread of nasalization................................................................69
2.2.2.3. Segments that block the spread of nasalization............................................69
2.2.3. Summary...............................................................................................................70
2.3. Stress.............................................................................................................................70
2.3.1. Place of the stress variations.................................................................................70
2.4. Syllable structure..........................................................................................................71
2.4.1. Types of syllable structure....................................................................................72
2.4.2. Prenasalized voiced stops and affricates consonants............................................75
2.4.3. Pre-nasalized voiceless stops................................................................................76
2.4.4. Syllable structure variations..................................................................................77
2.5. Morpho-phonology.......................................................................................................78
2.5.1. Allomorphic variations.........................................................................................78
2.5.2. Nasal harmony......................................................................................................84
2.5.2.1. Allomorphic variations due to the regressive spread of nasalization...........84
2.5.2.2. Regressive spread of nasalization and monosyllabic roots...........................85
2.5.2.3. Allomorphic variations due to the progressive spread of nasalization.........86
2.5.2.4. CAUS1 and progressive spread of nasalization............................................87
2.5.2.5. Summary.......................................................................................................89
2.5.3. Stress.....................................................................................................................90
2.5.3.1. Suffixes and clitics and the place of the stress..............................................90
2.5.4. Reduplication........................................................................................................92
2.6. Conclusions...................................................................................................................97
3. The noun and the noun phrase..............................................................................................97
3.1. Nominal morphology....................................................................................................98
3.1.1. Nominal root.........................................................................................................98
3.1.2. Gender.................................................................................................................100
3.1.3. Number...............................................................................................................101
3.1.4. Diminutives.........................................................................................................102
3.1.5. Augmentatives....................................................................................................104
3.1.6. Possession...........................................................................................................105
3.1.6.1. General considerations on possession.........................................................105
3.1.6.2. The alienable-inalienable opposition in TG languages...............................106
3.1.6.3. Person markers in TG languages................................................................106
3.1.6.4. Nominal classes in Guarani and Chiriguano...............................................108
3.1.6.5. Nominal classes in Tapiete.........................................................................111
3.1.6.6. The alienable-inalienable opposition in Tapiete.........................................111
The formal expression of alienable possession in Tapiete..........................................112
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The formal expression of inalienable possession in Tapiete......................................113
3.1.6.7. Complementary remarks.............................................................................119
3.2. Noun phrase structure.................................................................................................120
3.2.1. Order of elements in the Noun Phrase................................................................120
3.2.2. Independent pronouns.........................................................................................121
3.2.3. Indefinite pronouns.............................................................................................122
3.2.4. Demonstratives...................................................................................................123
3.2.5. Numerals and quantifiers....................................................................................125
3.2.5.1. Quantifiers...................................................................................................125
3.2.5.2. Numerals.....................................................................................................125
3.2.6. Noun modifying..................................................................................................127
3.2.7. Adjectives...........................................................................................................128
3.2.8. Locatives.............................................................................................................129
3.3. Conclusions.................................................................................................................132
4. The verb and the verb phrase..............................................................................................133
4.1. Verbal morphology.....................................................................................................134
4.1.1. Verbal roots.........................................................................................................134
4.1.2. Person markers....................................................................................................136
4.1.2.1. Cross reference markers in TG languages..................................................136
4.1.2.2. Tapiete active person markers....................................................................143
4.1.2.3. Tapiete inactive person markers.................................................................146
4.1.2.4. Tapiete version of Jensen’s Set 3 person markers......................................149
4.1.2.5. Tapiete version of Jensen’s Set 4 person markers......................................149
4.1.2.6. Comparison of person markers for the deviant languages..........................153
4.1.3. Tense, aspect and mood......................................................................................154
4.1.3.1. Tense...........................................................................................................154
Immediate and distant future......................................................................................155
Immediate and distant past..........................................................................................156
4.1.3.2. Aspect.........................................................................................................157
Resultative aspect........................................................................................................157
Habitual aspect............................................................................................................158
Frequentative aspect....................................................................................................158
Reduplication: a semantic account..............................................................................159
4.1.3.3. Mood...........................................................................................................162
Imperative and hortative.............................................................................................162
Permissive...................................................................................................................165
Optative.......................................................................................................................165
Weak obligation..........................................................................................................165
4.1.4. Valence changing operations..............................................................................166
4.1.4.1. Causatives...................................................................................................166
causative prefix mbi- ~ mi-.........................................................................................167
Causative suffix -ka....................................................................................................169
4.1.4.2. Comitative...................................................................................................170
4.1.4.3. Incorporated nominal particles...................................................................172
Lexical prefix mba- ~ ma-..........................................................................................173
Lexical prefix piri-......................................................................................................174
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4.1.4.4. Reflexive markers in Tapiete......................................................................174
Reflexive markers in TG languages............................................................................174
The person marker ai- in Tapiete: a reinterpretation..................................................176
Third person reflexive marker....................................................................................177
Merged of TG reflexive *je and reciprocal *jo..........................................................180
Reflexives and middle voice markers.........................................................................182
The valency of the source verb...................................................................................183
Semantic account........................................................................................................185
4.1.5. Number...............................................................................................................190
4.1.6. Morphological negation......................................................................................191
4.1.7. Other verbal morphemes.....................................................................................192
4.1.7.1. Superlative suffix -ite ‘SUP’........................................................................192
4.1.7.2. Instrumental suffix -pi ‘INST’......................................................................192
4.1.7.3. Diminutive suffix -ra’i ‘DIM2’....................................................................193
4.2. Verb phrase structure..................................................................................................194
4.2.1. Auxiliary verbs....................................................................................................194
4.2.2. Adverbs...............................................................................................................198
4.2.3. Adverbs of manner..............................................................................................199
4.2.4. Adverbs of time...................................................................................................200
4.2.5. Adverbs of location.............................................................................................201
4.2.6. Adverbial phrase.................................................................................................201
4.3. Conclusions.................................................................................................................202
5. Clause level syntax.............................................................................................................205
5.1. Constituent order.........................................................................................................206
5.2. Types of sentences......................................................................................................206
5.2.1. Declarative..........................................................................................................206
5.2.1.1. Transitive clauses........................................................................................207
5.2.1.2. Ditransitive clauses.....................................................................................209
5.2.1.3. Agentive / patientive intransitive clauses...................................................213
5.2.1.4. Existential clauses.......................................................................................213
5.2.1.5. Equational clauses.......................................................................................214
5.2.1.6. Pospositions and semantic roles..................................................................215
Posposition rehe..........................................................................................................216
Posposition hewi.........................................................................................................219
Posposition yehe..........................................................................................................221
Posposition yupe.........................................................................................................223
Comparison with Guaraní and Ava-Guarani (Chiriguano).........................................225
5.2.2. Interrogative........................................................................................................226
5.2.2.1. Yes / No questions......................................................................................226
Intonation....................................................................................................................227
Question particle.........................................................................................................227
5.2.2.2. Question words...........................................................................................228
5.3. Subordinate clauses.....................................................................................................229
5.3.1. Relative clauses...................................................................................................230
5.3.2. Complement clauses...........................................................................................235
5.3.3. Adverbial clauses................................................................................................237
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5.4. Possessive constructions.............................................................................................241
5.5. Coordination...............................................................................................................243
5.6. Comparatives..............................................................................................................246
5.7. Imperative...................................................................................................................248
5.8. Negation......................................................................................................................250
5.9. Evidentials...................................................................................................................252
5.10. Conclusions.............................................................................................................255
6. Treatment of spanish borrowings........................................................................................257
6.1. Phonetic and phonological level.................................................................................258
6.1.1. Phonological aspects of Northern Argentina Spanish........................................258
6.1.2. Consonant changes..............................................................................................260
6.1.2.1. Voiced stops................................................................................................260
6.1.2.2. Spanish liquids: /r/ and /l/...........................................................................263
6.1.2.3. Spanish voiceless palatal affricate <ch>............................................264
/t/
6.1.2.4. Spanish velar voiceless fricative /x/ <j>.....................................................264
6.1.2.5. Spanish voiceless labio-dental fricative /f/.................................................265
6.1.3. Vocalic changes..................................................................................................266
6.1.4. Syllable structure changes...................................................................................267
6.1.4.1. Disruption of Spanish consonant clusters...................................................267
6.1.4.2. Consonant deletion......................................................................................267
6.1.4.3. Epenthetic vowel insertion..........................................................................268
6.1.4.4. Disruption of Spanish sequences of vowels...............................................270
6.1.4.5. Reinterpretation of Spanish consonant clusters..........................................270
6.1.4.6. Closed syllable deletion..............................................................................271
6.1.5. Stress changes.....................................................................................................273
6.1.6. Nasal harmony on loan words.............................................................................274
6.1.6.1. Nasal harmony and syllable structure.........................................................278
6.1.6.2. Nasality as a strategy of nativization?........................................................279
6.1.7. Different strategies of nativization......................................................................280
6.2. Lexical level................................................................................................................280
6.2.1. Percentage of loan words in the lexicon.............................................................281
6.2.2. Frequency of loan words in relation to age.........................................................282
6.2.3. Distribution of nativized loanwords in relation to age........................................285
6.3. Syntactic level.............................................................................................................286
6.3.1. Morphological identification of verbal borrowings............................................287
6.3.1.1. Causative prefix as a marker of verbal borrowings....................................287
6.3.1.2. Spanish verbs’ default form........................................................................288
6.3.1.3. Causative prefix mb-/m- and nasal harmony..............................................289
6.3.2. Word order change..............................................................................................290
6.4. Discourse level............................................................................................................290
6.4.1. Use of Spanish connectors..................................................................................290
6.5. Conclusions.................................................................................................................291
7. Conclusions.........................................................................................................................292
APPENDIX A.............................................................................................................................298
List of abbreviations...............................................................................................................298
APPENDIX B.............................................................................................................................300
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Reduplicated verbs..................................................................................................................300
APPENDIX C.............................................................................................................................303
Reflexives...............................................................................................................................303
APPENDIX D.............................................................................................................................307
Tapiete Vocabulary.................................................................................................................307
APPENDIX E.............................................................................................................................377
Tapiete texts............................................................................................................................377
BIBLIOGRAPHY.......................................................................................................................411

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