A Fresh Look at Empiricism 1927-42

467 Pages·1996·56.342 MB·English

by  Bertrand Russell

BERTRAND RUSSELL
A Fresh Look at Empiricism
1927-42
Edited by
John G. Slater
with the assistance of
Peter Kemner
Russell clearing customs in New York City, September 1938.
(Associated Press Photo)
London and New York
First published 1996
by Routledge
n New Fetter Lane, London EC4P 4EE
THE COLLECTED PAPERS OF BERTRAND RUSSELL
Simultaneously published in the USA and Canada
by Routledge
29 West 35th Street, New York, NY I0001
Bertrand Russell's unpublished letters and Papers 6, 9, 33-35, 56, and Appendixes VI, XIV© DIRECTOR
McMaster University 1996. Papers 1-5, 7, 8, 10-32, 36-55, 57-69, and Appendixes I-v,
vn-xm © The Bertrand Russell Estate 1927, 1928, 1929, 1930, 1931, 1932, 1933, 1934, Louis Greenspan (McMaster University)
1935, 1936, 1937, 1938, 1939, 1940, 1941, 1942. Editorial matter© John G. Slater 1996.
Funds to edit this volume were provided by a major editorial grant from the Social Sciences
and Humanities Research Council of Canada and by McMaster University. ADVISORY EDITORIAL BOARD
All rights reserved. No part of this book may be reprinted or reproduced or utilized in any I. Grattan-Guinness (Middlesex University)
form or by any electronic, mechanical, or other means, now known or hereafter invented, Jock Gunn (Queen's University)
including photocopying and recording, or in any information storage or retrieval system,
Francess G. Halpenny (University of Toronto)
without permission in writing from the publishers.
Royden Harrison (University of Warwick)
Leonard Linsky (University of Chicago)
British Library Cataloguing in Publication Data
H. C. G. Matthew (St. Hugh's College, Oxford)
John Passmore* (Australian National University)
Russell, Bertrand
A Fresh Look at Empiricism, 1927-42. - D. F. Pears (Christ Church, Oxford)
(Collected Papers of Bertrand Russell; John M. Robson (University of Toronto)
V. IO) Alan Ryan (Princeton University)
I. Title II. Slater, John G. Katharine Tait
III. Kiillner, Peter. N. Series
192
Library of Congress Cataloguing in Publication Data
Russell, Bertrand, 1872-1970.
A fresh look at empiricism : 1927-42 I Bertrand Russell ; edited
by John G. Slater with the assistance of Peter Ki:\llner. -McMaster
University ed.
p. cm.-(The Collected Papers of Bertrand Russell; v. IO)
Includes bibliographical references and index.
r. Empiricism. I. Slater, John G. (John Greer) II. Kiillner,
Peter. Ill. Title. IV. Series: Russell, Bertrand, 1872-1970.
Selections. 1983 ; v. IO.
B1649.R91 1983 vol. IO
[BC816]
I92-dc20 96-u344
Set in IO on 12 point Monotype Plantin (Postscript)
by The Bertrand Russell Editorial Project, McMaster University
and printed in Great Britain by St Edmundsbury Press Ltd,
Bury St Edmunds, Suffolk
*General Editor Emeritus
Contents
Abbreviations XU
Introduction Xlll
Acknowledgements xxvii
Chronology xxxi
PART I. AUTOBIOGRAPHICAL WRITINGS
1 Things That Have Moulded Me [I927] 3
2 How I Came By My Creed [I929] IO
3 My Religious Reminiscences [I938] 20
PART II. HISTORY AND PHILOSOPHY OF SCIENCE
4 Events, Matter, and Mind [I927] 29
5 Had Newton Never Lived [I927] 33
6 Einstein [I928] 38
7 The Future of Science [I928] 43
Headnote to Four Reviews of Eddington (8-11) 50
8 Physics and Theology [I929] 53
9 Review of Sir Arthur Eddington, The Nature
of the Physical Wbrld [I928] 55
10 Review of Sir Arthur Eddington,
The Expanding Universe [I933] 57
11 Scientific Certainty and Uncertainty [I935] 59
12 Review of James Jeans, The Mysterious
Universe [I930] 63
13 Determinism and Physics [I936] 67
14 Review of Hyman Levy, A Philosophy for
a Modern Man [I938] 8I
a Philosophy and Common Sense [I938] 82
b Philosophy and Common Sense [I938] 84
PART III. LOGIC AND PROBABILITY THEORY
15 Mr. F. P. Ramsey on Logical Paradoxes [I928] 89
vu
Vlll CONTENTS CONTENTS IX
16 A Tribute to Morris Raphael Cohen [1927] 92 42 The Limits of Empiricism [1936] 313
17 Probability and Fact [1930] 96 43 Philosophy and Grammar [1936] 329
Headnote to Two Reviews of Ramsey (18-19) I06 44 Philosophy's Ulterior Motives [1937] 334
18 Review of Ramsey, The Foundations 45 On Verification [1938] 344
of Mathematics [1931] 46 The Relevance of Psychology to Logic [1938] 360
19 Review of Ramsey, The Foundations 47 Non-Materialistic Naturalism [1942] 371
of Mathematics [1932] II4
20 Congress of Scientific Philosophy [1936] II8
PART VII. ETHICS AND POLITICS
21 On Order in Time [1936] 122
22 On the Importance of Logical Form [1938] 138
48 How Will Science Change Morals? [1928] 379
23 Dewey's New Logic [1939] 141
49 Democracy and Emotion [1929] 389
50 Is There a New Morality? [1929] 392
PART IV. EDUCATIONAL THEORY 51 How Science Has Changed Society [1932] 395
Headnote to Four Papers on Ethics and Law
24 How Behaviourists Teach Behaviour [1928] 163
for the Hearst Newspapers (52-55) 403
25 The Application of Science to Education [1928] 168
52 On Utilitarianism [1933] 405
53 Individualist Ethics [1933] 406
PART V. WRITINGS CRITICAL OF RELIGION 54 Respect for Law [1933] 407
55 Competitive Ethics [1934] 409
26 Why I Am Not a Christian [1927] 177
56 The Philosophy of Communism [1934] 4II
27 Bertrand Russell's Confession of Faith [1927] 194
57 The Ancestry of Fascism [1935] 422
28 What Is the Soul? [1929] 202
58 Freedom and Government [1940] 436
29 Why Mr. Wood Is Not a Freethinker [1929] 206
59 On Keeping a Wide Horizon [I941] 450
30 Has Religion Made Useful Contributions to
Civilization? [l 929] 213
PART VIII. HISTORY OF PHILOSOPHY
31 Is Religion Desirable? [1929] 229
32 Morality and Religion [1929] 233
60 Philosophy in the Twentieth Century [1936] 46I
33 Science and Religion [1935?] 237
34 Need Morals Have a Religious Basis? [1937?] 246 61 Plato in Modern Dress [1937] 467
35 The Existence and Nature of God [1939] 253 62 The Philosophy of Santayana [1940] 471
Headnote to Four Radio Discussions (63-66) 49I
63 Hegel: Philosophy of History [I941] 494
PART VI. EPISTEMOLOGY AND METAPHYSICS
64 Descartes: A Discourse on Method [I942] 503
65 Benedict de Spinoza: Ethics [1942] 512
36 Physics and Metaphysics [1928] 271
66 Lewis Carroll: Alice in Wmderland [1942] 521
37 On the Value of Scepticism [1928] 279
38 Bertrand Russell Replies [1929] 290
39 Analysis of Mind [1932] 293 PART IX. THE "HOW-TO" SERIES
40 The Decrease of Knowledge [1935] 297
41 Three Papers on "Useless" Knowledge [1933-35] 300 Headnote to Three "How-To" Papers (67-69) 533
a The Social Importance of Culture [1933] 301 67 How To Become a Philosopher [1942] 535
b On Curious Learning [1934] 303 68 How To Become a Logician [1942] 549
c "Useless" Knowledge [I935] 304 69 How To Become a Mathematician [I942] 564
x CONTENTS
Illustrations
APPENDIXES
Syllabus for Lecture Course [1927] 585
II "Achilles and the Tortoise" by F. P. Ramsey [1927] 587
III "Sweet Treasonableness"
by S. D. Schmalhausen [1928] 592
IV "The Scientific Society" by Bertrand Russell [1933] 596
v Report in Fabian News of Paper 57 [1935] 601
VI [Manuscript 220.0I6640] [1937?] 604
VII Two Letters by Hyman Levy [1938] 606 frontispiece
VIII "The Relevance of Psychology to Logic"
by R. B. Braithwaite [1938] 6IO Russell clearing customs in New York City, September 1938. (Associated
IX John Dewey's Reply to Paper 23 [1939] 627 Press Photo)
x Santayana's Reply to Paper 62 [I940] 633 between pages ]I2 and JI]
XI "A Philosophy for You in These Times" [1941] 639
XII Notes on Descartes for Paper 64 [1942] 645 TELEGRAPH HOUSE: "With the house went two hundred and thirty acres of
XIII Notes for Lewis Carroll Broadcast, Paper 66 [1942] 650 wild downland, partly heather and bracken, but mostly virgin forest-magni
XIV Nine Manuscripts Preliminary to Paper 42 [1936] 652 ficent beach trees, and yews of vast age and unusual size. The woods were
full of every kind of wild life, including deer" (Russell r968, 153). THE TOWER
ANNOTATION 679 ROOM: "There was a tower with large windows on all four sides. Here I made
my study, and I have never known one with a more beautiful outlook" (Rus
TEXTUAL NOTES 781 sell r968, 153).
BIBLIOGRAPHICAL INDEX 829 II The verso of folio 6 of the parent paper (Appendix XIV, 665: 40-666: 15).
Presumably a lesson in logic.
GENERAL INDEX 867
III The following four plates (including this plate) account for the genesis of
"On Order in Time". Page 16 of the parent paper. See 670: 38-671: 13.
IV Page 17 of the parent paper. See 671: 14-30.
v Page 18 of the parent paper. See 671: 31-672: 16.
VI Page 19 of the parent paper. See 672: 17-33.
VII Verso of folio 18 of "On Order in Time" (135: 14-136: 2).
VIII Verso of folio 19 of "On Order in Time" (136: 3-23).
All plates are photographs of documents in the Bertrand Russell Archives at
McMaster University. They are shown reduced from their original size,
which is given at the head of each set of textual notes.
xi
Abbreviations Introduction
To PROVIDE THE reader with an uncluttered text, abbreviations and DURING THE PERIOD covered by this volume Bertrand Russell first
symbols have been kept to a minimum. The few necessary to the refer retired from, and then resumed, his philosophical career. In 1927 he
encing system are as follows. published two philosophy books, The Analysis of Matter and An Outline of
The papers printed in the volume are given a boldface number for easy Philosophy (called Philosophy in the United States). The first of these,
reference. For example, "Why I Am Not a Christian" is Paper 26. Angle which for the next several years he regarded as his final contribution to
brackets in the text distinguish rare editorial insertions from Russell's academic philosophy, is a highly technical study of the concept of "mat
more common square brackets. ter" required by the "new physics" of relativity theory and quantum
Bibliographical references are usually in the form of author, date and mechanics. The second book, written for a much wider audience, was
page, e.g. "Clark 1975, 471". Consultation of the Bibliographical Index not intended to break new ground, but, in addition to providing the
shows that this reference is to page 471 of Ronald W. Clark, The Life of beginner with an excellent introduction to his philosophical position, it
Bertrand Russell (London: Jonathan Cape and Weidenfeld & Nicholson, does report an important break with Moore's ethical theory due, Russell
1975). tells the reader, to criticisms of his own published version of the theory
The location of archival documents cited in the edition is the Bertrand by George Santayana. In its place Russell adopted a subjectivist ethics, a
Russell Archives at McMaster University ("RA"), unless a different loca position he held for the rest of his life. His next book in academic philos
tion is given. File numbers of documents in the Russell Archives are ophy, An Inquiry into Meaning and Truth, was not published until 1940.
provided only when manuscripts of papers printed here are cited or when For about half of the period covered by this volume, therefore, Russell
files are difficult to identify. "RA REC. ACQ." refers to the files of recent regarded himself as retired from professional philosophy. But during that
acquisitions in the Russell Archives. period he did not leave off writing for publication, and a significant por
Cross-references to annotations are preceded by "A" and followed by tion of what he wrote was philosophical in nature. To make money he
page and line numbers (as in "A74: 24"). had turned to his pen. His financial obligations at this time were con
siderable; he was still involved with his second wife, Dora, in running
Beacon Hill School, which required much more money than they had
supposed when they established it in September 1927. To finance it,
both of them undertook exhausting lecture tours of the United States,
and, to add to his labours, he wrote popular books with a wide appeal
designed to bring in cash; Marriage and Morals (1929), The Conquest of
Happiness (1930), and The Scientific Outlook (1931) all sold well, and the
first two very well. Hundreds of articles for magazines and newspapers
also helped to pay the bills. In the early 1930s his relationship with Dora
soured; the reason he cited was that she had given birth to two children
fathered by another man. No doubt this was a deciding factor in the
break-up, but probably of equal importance was Russell's developing
affaire with a young woman, Patricia (Peter) Spence, whom Dora had
brought into their home as governess for their two children. Dora sued
Xll Xlll
xiv INTRODUCTION INTRODUCTION xv
Many rallied to Russell's support, but they could not prevail.
for divorce, and, after a nasty court battle, it was granted early in 1935.
An eccentric multimillionaire, Albert Barnes, who had amassed an ex
As a consequence, Russell's financial obligations increased; he had to pay
traordinary collection of impressionist and post-impressionist art at his
Dora money in support of his two children, as well as pay for a separate
household for Peter, whom he had married on 18 January 1936, himself estate near Philadelphia, and who had started a school to train young
people in his conception of art appreciation, offered Russell a position in
and their son, Conrad, who was born on 15 April 1937. These fresh
his school. Over a five year period Russell was to give one lecture a week
demands, added to those he was already carrying, led him to consider a
on the history of philosophy, beginning with the pre-Socratics and end
return to academic life as the surest way to ensure a steady income.
ing with his own views; he was to be paid $8,ooo per year, but, according
In 1935, when he was sixty-three years of age, he let it be known in
to Barnes later, he was to forswear popular writing and lecturing. Russell
philosophical circles that he was resuming work in professional philos
took up his new duties in January 1941, having spent the fall semester at
ophy and that he would be glad to accept a suitable university post. The
Harvard where he delivered the William James lectures, later published
first post he was offered was a visiting professorship in philosophy in the
as An Inquiry into Meaning and Truth. Barnes proved a difficult employer.
University of Chicago for the year 1938-39. Besides its academic attrac
The first hint of trouble came when he objected to Peter's attendance at
tions, the offer pleased him because it provided an escape from Europe
the lectures. She replied that, since she helped to prepare them, she
for him, his wife and their infant son just when war seemed imminent.
needed to hear them delivered in order to advise on their revision before
The following year Dora turned the custody of his two older children
publication. Furthermore, since Russell could not drive and gasoline
over to him and they joined him in the United States; his whole family
rationing prohibited two trips, she had to bring him to the lectures and
lived there until the spring of 1944.
wait to take him home. His lecture room was the only warm place avail
While he was teaching in Chicago he was offered a three-year appoint
able for waiting. Barnes resumed his attack by objecting to her knitting
ment as Professor of Philosophy in the University of California at Los
during the lectures; the noise, he claimed, distracted the audience. Peter
Angeles, which he was happy to accept, but during his first year there he
retorted that it was her duty to contribute in any way she could to the
was offered a similar position in the College of the City of New York.
war effort. In the battle of words with Barnes, Russell supported Peter.
Life in New York City greatly appealed to the Russells, so he wrote to
Recognizing that he had failed in his attacks on Peter, Barnes assailed
c.c.N.Y. to accept its offer; at the same time, he resigned his appointment
Russell himself, objecting to his acceptance of outside speaking engage
at u.C.L.A. effective at the end of the academic year. When his appoint
ments as contrary to his contract. Without warning, in December 1942,
ment to c.c.N.Y. was announced, it set off a wave 1of angry protest
Barnes fired Russell, giving as his reason that Russell "had broken his
amongst the clergy in New York City. His views on marriage, as ex
contract by popular lecturing and by his upholding of Mrs. Russell's
pounded in Marriage and Morals, were condemned as completely beyond
disorderly conduct". Russell sued Barnes for breach of contract and won.
the pale, but it was probably his views on religion, especially as laid out
Barnes appealed the decision twice and lost both times; he was obliged
in his lecture, W'hy I Am Not a Christian (1927), which infuriated the
clergy. The daughter of a Brooklyn dentist brought a suit asking the by court order to pay Russell $20,000, nearly the whole of the amount
that Russell would have been paid had he fulfilled the contract. This
court to annul his appointment. Instead of throwing the case out of
court, as he should have done on the ground that she could not possibly windfall, plus the royalties from A History of ~stern Philosophy (1945),
the published version of his largely undelivered lecture course at the
have an interest in Russell's appointment, since C.C.N.Y. admitted only
Barnes Foundation, which proved to be his first "best-seller", put an end
male students, the judge took it, and, after a show of a hearing from
to his financial worries. For the rest of his life he had enough money to
which Russell was excluded on the ground that he was an alien, he wrote
support himself and his many dependents.
a very intemperate judgment denying Russell the appointment. In his
Russell's activities between 1927 and 1943 that have a philosophical di
judgment he made the absurd claim that by appointing Russell to teach
mension will be briefly discussed under these headings: (1) his return to
logic and the foundations of mathematics c.c.N.Y. was "in effect estab
professional philosophical work; (2) his critique of religion; (3) his politi
lishing a chair of indecency". But his judgment would have deprived
cal writings; (4) his writings on education; (5) his popular writings on
Russell of his job only if C.C.N.Y. had chosen to act upon it, since the
science; (6) his "how-to" pamphlets; (7) his philosophical journalism;
court had no power to enforce its decision. C.C.N.Y. stood firm, but its
and (8) his autobiographical writings.
officers were undercut by Mayor Fiorello La Guardia, who used his line
item veto to delete Russell's position from the budget of New York City.
XVl INTRODUCTION INTRODUCTION XVll
PROFESSIONAL PHILOSOPHICAL WORK mathematical logic. The logical positivists regarded their position as in
part at least a direct descendant of Russell's own work in these areas
The philosophical community of the 1930s was a small one by today's earlier in the century. Although Russell never identified himself as a
standards, so when Russell let it be known that he planned to return to member of this movement, since he found much to criticize in particular
full-time work in philosophy, word spread very quickly. One of his first doctrines of the school, he always made it very clear that he thought that
acts was to present a paper to the Aristotelian Society, then and now one the revolution this movement had sparked in philosophy was headed in
of the most important philosophical associations; "The Limits of Empiri the right direction and was bound, therefore, to produce good conse
cism" (42) was read to the Society on 6 April 1936, but he had already quences. His most extended contribution to the debate initiated by the
presented it to the Moral Science Club at Cambridge on 28 November logical positivists is to be found in An Inquiry into Meaning and Truth
1935. Clearly, he wanted his alma mater to know that he was available for (1940). In its preface he states: "As will be evident to the reader, I am, as
a suitable appointment. The following year he was elected President of regards method, more in sympathy with the logical positivists than with
the Aristotelian Society to serve during 1937-38; it was his third term in any other existing school."
this office; he had served two consecutive terms in 1911-13. As his presi The work of the logical positivists was just one area of contemporary
dential address he delivered "On Verification" (45), dealing with a hotly work in philosophy in which Russell took a critical interest. When Frank
debated topic lately introduced by the logical positivists. During the Ramsey's writings were collected and published in 1931, Russell wrote
annual meeting of the Society in the summer of 1938 he participated in a two reviews (18, 19) of the book. Like everyone else he lamented
symposium, whose topic, "The Relevance of Psychology to Logic" (4 6), Ramsey's early death, but he had more cause for grief than most of the
derived from The Analysis of Mind (1921). This proved to be his last other mourners, for Ramsey had been one of the very few who had taken
contribution to the Society's proceedings. an interest in Principia Mathematica and had mastered it to the point
In addition to these addresses he delivered two more to learned where he was developing further the ideas contained in it.
societies as earnests of his intention to resume full-time philosophical When Paul Arthur Schilpp conceived of The Library of Living Philos
work. "Determinism and Physics" (13) was read to an audience in the ophers and lined up John Dewey and George Santayana as among the
University of Durham on 14 January 1936. It derived from the work he first to be honoured by volumes in the series, he secured Russell's com
had done in The Analysis of Matter and showed that he had continued to mitment to write long articles on important aspects of their thought.
keep abreast with developments in the "new physics". "On Order in "Dewey's New Logic" (23) critically examines one of the central doc
Time" (21) was read to a meeting of the Cambridge Philosophical trines of Dewey's book, which had only very recently been published, but
Society, which despite its name is a scientific society, on 9 March 1936. "The Philosophy of Santayana" (62) ranges over most of Santayana's
This paper, whose delivery must have daunted most of his audience since thought. Their replies to Russell are reprinted here (Appendixes IX and
it is almost wholly in the notation of Principia Mathematica, had been x) for the reader's convenience; an examination of them shows that
written during the previous year and received by the Society on 30 Sep Dewey was more upset by Russell's critique than was Santayana.
tember 1935. Perhaps the long gap between its submission and its read Russell's contributions to the Schilpp volume devoted to him will be
ing allowed for it to be available to members for study before its delivery. reprinted in Volume I 1 of The Collected Papers of Bertrand Russell.
This paper shows Russell still fully in command of the language of
Principia and with fresh ideas on how that language could be brought to CRITIQUE OF RELIGION
bear on problems of temporal order.
His first two papers for the Aristotelian Society engaged him in debate In 1927 with the delivery of his lecture, "Why I Am Not a Christian"
with the emerging school of logical positivists. This movement, which (26), to a sympathetic audience assembled by the National Secular
originated with the "Vienna Circle", an unstructured group centred Society, and published as a pamphlet on both sides of the Atlantic,
around Moritz Schlick, was popularized in England by A. J. Ayer, then at Russell opened a new line of writing. Very early in his life he had been a
the beginning of his career. When Ayer's first book, Language, Truth and believer, but, as an adolescent, he had scrutinized some of the central
Logic, appeared in 1936 Russell was asked to review it; in "Philosophy tenets of Christianity and had arrived at the conclusion that none of
and Grammar" ( 43) he welcomes the new movement as likely to prove them were defensible. From then on he had been a non-believer, but he
very fruitful since it is the product of the marriage of empiricism and had not much publicized the fact. During the First World War the belli-
xviii INTRODUCTION INTRODUCTION XlX
cose behaviour of most of the clergy greatly increased his contempt for also been active in political protest, but in the 1930s he took a more
organized religion, or "the church" as he usually referred to it. Still he historical interest in politics. How had it come about that totalitarianisms
did not attack it openly, although there are many passages in his writings of both the right and the left had arisen at the same time? His effort to
that left no reader in doubt as to where he stood on the church and on understand these unwelcome phenomena led him to write Freedom and
religion more generally. Organization, 18I4-1914 (1934), from which he extracted the lecture,
The publicity his lecture generated changed his life dramatically. Over "The Philosophy of Communism" (56), and to begin work on a com
night he became famous to some, and notorious to others, for having the panion volume, which he had tentatively entitled, The Revolt Against
courage to state the enormous difficulties to be found in Christian doc Reason. The Russell Archives contains sheaves of notes he made in prep
trine; he argued for a near total rejection of the church and all that it aration for writing this projected book, but for some reason he aban
stood for. This stand altered his life in important ways; he was now the doned work on it. The most important fruit of all this labour is "The
subject of printed attacks, a few of them temperate and civilized, but Ancestry of Fascism" (57), which was originally published under the title
most of them violent, at least in their choice of words. Establishment of the proposed book; in it he traces the philosophical roots of fascism
figures, whether believers or not, felt obliged to treat him at arm's length, back to the extremely nationalistic writings of the German philosopher,
lest they be regarded as unduly tolerant of the enemy. There is no evi Johann Fichte (1762-1814). But the other research he did was not
dence that any of this mistreatment and shunning by others fazed him; wasted-such effort seldom was for Russell-for he made use of it in
on the contrary, he seemed to enjoy the controversy he had stirred up. Power: A New Social Analysis (1938), which examines the concept of
No doubt he thought that the only way to get people to think about power and its various manifestations in our lives.
these matters is to shock them into doing so. Sugar-coated suggestions
would simply be swallowed without having any effect. Throughout the
EDUCATION
rest of his life, he published occasional anti-religious pieces, one of the
most sustained is "Has Religion Made Useful Contributions to Civiliza In Principles of Social Reconstruction (Why Men Fight in the United
tion?" (30), which directly attacks the role of the church in history. An States), published in 1916, Russell, for the first time, considered the role
invitation from The Home University Library of Modern Knowledge to of education in society. Appalled by the reception given to the outbreak
write a popular book with the title, Religion and Science (1935), gave him of the First World War by both politicians and ordinary citizens alike, he
the opportunity to discuss at length, and with the introduction of many concluded that something must be seriously amiss with the educational
spicy and even bizarre examples, the ways in which the church had at system if it produced adults who cheered to the echo the impending
tempted to thwart the rise of modern science, and to condemn its meddl slaughter. Clearly these people had not been taught to think, and by this
ing roundly. Before an audience of more than 2,000 people at the Uni he meant in part that they had not been taught to deduce the conse
versity of Michigan in Ann Arbor in 1939, he delivered a lecture on "The quences of proposed courses of action, for if they had developed this
Existence and Nature of God" (35), which is published here for the first ability, they would have been able to predict the horrors that would soon
time. On the anti-religious circuit he had become a star attraction. engulf everyone, themselves included. In this book he urged educators to
revise their procedures and the curriculum in such a way as to develop
POLITICS each child's ability to think to the fullest extent possible. If this were to
happen, he argues, then future populations would be less likely to be
During these years Russell did some of his most sustained work in politi taken in by propaganda of the sort that led to war.
cal philosophy. The rise of fascism and the transformation of Leninism At the time he wrote this book, he had no children of his own. When
into Stalinism dominated the period, and it seemed, from time to time, he next wrote on education, he was a father, facing the question of how
that the democracies were losing ground to the new totalitarianisms. His to educate his children. His first wife, Alys, had given him a divorce in
interest in politics was, of course, not new, since it went back to his 1921, and he immediately married Dora Black, who was then pregnant
childhood, and he had written a great deal on various political questions with their child. John was born in 1921 and Kate in 1923. Russell took a
in earlier years. His very first book, German Social Democracy (1896), great interest in their development, and he found the writings of the
dealt with the role that Marxian socialism played in the politics of Ger American behaviourist, John Watson, a great stimulus. Watson had made
many in the late nineteenth century. During the First World War he had extensive studies of infant behaviour, and had published his results.
xx INTRODUCTION INTRODUCTION xxi
Russell was not always persuaded by Watson's rather radical arguments work. If the pupils were indeed endowed with a principle of growth, their
and bizarre conclusions: see "How Behaviourists Teach Behaviour" (24) growth had already been so badly distorted that only strict discipline
for a rather cool appraisal of the methods Watson recommends for the offered a chance to bring about a semblance of order, but often that too
psychological care of infants. Russell found the writings of the behaviour failed, leaving, according to Russell's theory, an even more thwarted
ists useful when he turned his attention to formulating an educational individual than before. Harsher discipline was then required, and the
philosophy, but he also found them deficient. Watson studied only the downward spiral continued. Then there were the expenses. The Russells
behaviour of the infant and child, and did not speculate at all on the had greatly underestimated the cost of running the school, and had ac
inner life of his subjects, because it could not be observed. If a modifica cordingly set the fees too low; to make up for the deficit both of them
tion of behaviour was desired, then one tried various devices and undertook long and arduous lecture tours of the United States, leaving
watched for changes; if the required modification came about, that was the other to cope with an endless series of problems. This already messy
the end of the story; if not, then one should try another way. Russell, situation was further complicated by the sexual affairs that both Russells
perhaps because he was more of a philosopher than Watson, opted for had with others, including their fellow teachers. When they were married
the hypothesis that the inner life of a child was controlled by a principle they had agreed that they would each tolerate extra-marital affairs on the
of growth, which, if allowed to develop in a disciplined way, led to good part of the other, but the consequences of this arrangement agreed to in
consequences both for the child and for society. Bad or deviant behav theory became unbearable for Russell in practice after Dora had two
iour was accounted for on this theory by attempts on the part of parents children by another man. Their sexual liaisons, whether real or attemp
and educational authorities to thwart growth. Since the growth was going ted, with their fellow teachers (and therefore their employees) gradually
to continue anyway, all that was achieved was to redirect it in such a way poisoned their working relationship. By the middle of 1932 the tension
as to lead eventually to undesirable consequences. Pent-up energy will between them was so great that Russell decided to cut his ties with the
find an out sooner or later. In theory at least Russell believed that human school; he turned the school over to Dora, who continued it until its
nature was basically good, and that the evil things that people do, includ premises were commandeered during World War II. During his last year
ing of course going to war, were due to bad educational methods. with the school he wrote Education and the Social Order (1932) in which
Russell expounded this theory in two books and many articles. On Ed he distinguishes between the education of a person and the education of
ucation, Especially in Early Childhood (1926) provides the reader with the a citizen, and argues that most states were only interested in the latter,
fullest statement of the theory. To illustrate his points Russell often when they ought to be encouraging the former. Needless to say, he de
makes reference to his observations on his own children. Their mother plores such education, because it leads sooner or later to conflict, and
also took an active interest in their education, and when it came time for even to war. The authorities who established such educational practices
them to receive formal schooling, both parents were involved in the were enemies of thought, because they told pupils (in effect) do not think
decision regarding an appropriate school. After looking at all of the "pro for yourselves, the state will do all of your thinking for you. For Russell
gressive" schools in England, they concluded that none of them were this was the worst sin an educator could commit.
progressive in the right way, so they took the momentous decision to
start their own school. Beacon Hill School, whose name derives from the POPULAR SCIENCE
location of its building, opened in the autumn of 1927. Both Russells
were listed among the several teachers; the pupils came from both Eng His work on The Analysis of Matter had obliged him to gain an under
land and the United States. In their enthusiasm for their methods, the standing of quantum theory and to bring himself up to date on develop
Russells had placed some unwise advertisements for pupils. Parents of ments in the theory of relativity since he had written his popular book,
problem-children read the ads and concluded that this new school pro The ABC of Relativity, two years earlier. When Einstein fell ill in 1928,
vided a ready-made solution for them. The student body therefore in and it was feared that his illness might prove fatal, The Observer turned to
cluded many children whose bad habits were already firmly set. Instead Russell for an obituary piece (6) for their files. Fortunately, Einstein
of being a grand and happy experiment in sound educational practice, recovered and the obituary found no use; it is printed here for the first
the running of the school trapped both Russells on a kind of treadmill. time. After the Second World War Russell wrote two more obituary
His educational theory was supposed to guide all of the teachers, but notices for the thinker he called "the man of the half-century"; they will
they-Russell and Dora included-constantly found that it simply did not be published in Volume l l of The Collected Papers of Bertrand Russell.