A Dictionary of the History of Medicine

788 Pages·2011·52.759 MB·\788

by  Anton Sebastian (Author)

A DICTIONARY OF THE
HISTORY OF
MEDICINE

A DICTIONARY OF THE
HISTORY OF
MEDICINE
Anton Sebastian
informa
healthcare
New York London
First published in 1999 by the Parthenon Publishing Group.
This edition published by Informa Healthcare, Telephone House, 69-77 Paul Street, London EC2A 4LQ, UK.
Simultaneously published in the USA by Informa Healthcare, 52 Vanderbilt Avenue, 7th Floor, New York, NY 10017, USA.
Informa Healthcare is a trading division of Informa UK Ltd. Registered Office: 37-41 Mortimer Street, London W1T 3JH, UK.
Registered in England and Wales number 1072954.
©2011 Informa Healthcare, except as otherwise indicated
No claim to original U.S. Government works
Reprinted material is quoted with permission. Although every effort has been made to ensure that all owners of copyright material
have been acknowledged in this publication, we would be glad to acknowledge in subsequent reprints or editions any omissions
brought to our attention.
All rights reserved. No part of this publication may be reproduced, stored in a retrieval system, or transmitted, in any form or by any
means, electronic, mechanical, photocopying, recording, or otherwise, unless with the prior written permission of the publisher or in
accordance with the provisions of the Copyright, Designs and Patents Act 1988 or under the terms of any licence permitting limited
copying issued by the Copyright Licensing Agency, 90 Tottenham Court Road, London W1P 0LP, UK, or the Copyright Clearance
Center, Inc., 222 Rosewood Drive, Danvers, MA 01923, USA (http://www.copyright.com/ or telephone [phone]).
Product or corporate names may be trademarks or registered trademarks, and are used only for identification and explanation without
intent to infringe.
This book contains information from reputable sources and although reasonable efforts have been made to publish accurate
information, the publisher makes no warranties (either express or implied) as to the accuracy or fitness for a particular purpose of
the information or advice contained herein. The publisher wishes to make it clear that any views or opinions expressed in this book by
individual authors or contributors are their personal views and opinions and do not necessarily reflect the views/opinions of the
publisher. Any information or guidance contained in this book is intended for use solely by medical professionals strictly as a
supplement to the medical professional's own judgement, knowledge of the patient's medical history, relevant manufacturer's
instructions and the appropriate best practice guidelines. Because of the rapid advances in medical science, any information or advice
on dosages, procedures, or diagnoses should be independently verified. This book does not indicate whether a particular treatment is
appropriate or suitable for a particular individual. Ultimately it is the sole responsibility of the medical professional to make his or her
own professional judgements, so as appropriately to advise and treat patients. Save for death or personal injury caused by the
publisher's negligence and to the fullest extent otherwise permitted by law, neither the publisher nor any person engaged or employed
by the publisher shall be responsible or liable for any loss, injury or damage caused to any person or property arising in any way from
the use of this book.
A CIP record for this book is available from the British Library.
Library of Congress Cataloging-in-Publication Data available on application
ISBN-13: 9781850700210
Orders may be sent to: Informa Healthcare, Sheepen Place, Colchester, Essex CO3 3LP, UK
Telephone: [phone]
Email: [email protected]
Website: http://informahealthcarebooks.com/
For corporate sales please contact: [email protected]
For foreign rights please contact: [email protected]
For reprint permissions please contact: [email protected]
Preface
The idea of this book came to me nearly ten years ago treatment of disease. Hippocrates around 400 BC
when I started cataloging my antiquarian and rare dispelled the myths of medicine and started treating it
medical and science books for my personal library of as a science. Around this same period, contemporary
3000 volumes. The vast amount of material available for Ayurvedic medicine in India and Chinese medicine in the
reference on the history of medicine only confused the East were developed independently. The Romans accept­
issue. Often I had to spend a lot of time looking through ed medicine as a respectable profession around 100 BC.
several books before I obtained any specific information The Arabs, around 750 AD, translated and modified Greek
on a subject. As I went on I became more and more medicine and adapted it to suit their religion and climate
convinced about the need for a single book that could and their influence lasted until the end of the Middle
give specific information on any topic in history of Ages. During the 15th century in Europe Paracelsus
medicine, as the Oxford Dictionary is to the English developed the art of alchemy into chemotherapeutics.
language. I wanted this book to serve medical The French surgeon Ambroise Paré revolutionized
researchers, presenters and clinicians who could not surgery in the next century. William Harvey announced
afford to spend their valuable hours in the library look­ his discovery of blood circulation in the early 17th cen­
ing for specific historic information on their topics. I also tury. Several other important discoveries and rapid
intended the book to be of interest to laymen, progress were made in the next few centuries. Most
paramedics, medical students and anyone else concerned modern scientific principles and concepts were estab­
in anyway with health care. lished in the 19th and 20th centuries. The atomist
The task of producing such a book I knew was theory of the universe proposed by Democritus over
formidable as I realized that the story of medicine is in 2000 years ago was revived on a scientific basis by Ernest
essence a recapitulation of mans attempts at survival Rutherford. Gregor Mendel’s work was revived by
since his first appearance on Earth. This brought a William Bateson, establishing genetics as a separate
prehistoric element into my book. In order to survive, science. The birth of modern physics gave explanation to
early man had to hunt and gather, and for this he had to electricity, heat, light, sound and magnetism which were
be fit and healthy, which led to the concept of health and previously observed as natural magic. Geology unfolded
disease. The study of paleopathology has shown that the origin and development of Earth and its life forms.
disease affected the hunter and hunted alike, leaving tell­ The relatively new «sciences such as anthropology
tale marks in the skeletons of dinosaurs and prehistoric contributed to evolution theory and paleopathology
man. The beginnings of medicine probably started with established the antiquity of diseases. Archeology
hunting and gathering. During the pursuit of his prey, unearthed the evidence of ancient cultures and
early man had the opportunity to study its locomotion, knowledge. These are only a few examples of the
and he learned of the fatality of wounds and signs of progress that occurred.
death when he killed for food. He unintentionally began Modern inventions and improved travel brought cures
his dissections when he cut up his game for food. A cave as well as diseases. The miracle cure for malaria, cinchona
painting of a mammoth drawn by Cro-Magnon man and bark, was brought from Peru to Spain from where it
estimated to be over 39,000 years old reveals that he reached the rest of Europe in the early 17th century. Sea
knew the position of the heart in the animal. travel spread the bubonic plague and the discovery of the
The study of normal and morbid human anatomy New World may have brought syphilis to Europe.
probably began with the practice of embalming by the Epidemics became pandemics causing a domino effect
Egyptians, who excelled in medicine for nearly 3000 on lives. Industries brought occupational disease,
years until overtaken by the Greeks around 600 BC. pollution and overcrowding. Airplanes removed the
The Greek temples of Aesculapius built around this remaining barriers to disease, and cars introduced health
time were probably the first inpatient institutions for problems resulting from road accidents, pollution, road
rage and lack of exercise. With man s achievement of large share of the pooled funds. I believe that an histori­
ample production of food and comfortable living, cal understanding of the genesis of these factors will help
diseases such as atherosclerosis, hypertension and diabetes us understand the complexity of our profession.
became common in affluent society. On the other hand, Throughout the preparation of this book over the past
with division of wealth came the diseases of deficiency ten years I had to keep reminding myself that it is a
and famine. dictionary of the history of medicine, and not a
Apart from the fact that medical history makes dictionary of medicine. In doing so I have minimised the
interesting reading why should we study it, especially in use and explanation of technical language and definitions
this era of high technology and specialization? In not which otherwise could be found in hundreds of available
doing so we are in danger of losing the wisdom that has medical dictionaries. The portraits used in this book
been handed down to us since the time of Aristotle. We emphasize those leaders of medicine as human beings
may also lose the sense of medical ethics proposed by and not just names. The other illustrations, mostly taken
Hippocrates. We may fail to realize how contemporary from my library, are for the readers to relate to the
gurus failed great men like Mendel, Semmelweiss and subject more effectively.
Henry Hickman in the past. Most of all, we may lose the I have used over 5000 volumes and hundreds of jour­
sense of gratitude to our predecessors, lose ourselves in nals as sources of primary and secondary references.
our own achievements and fail to learn from the past. Although I have endeavored to cover every aspect
The pride and glory of medicine enjoyed by doctors through over 10,000 key entries covering more than a
today belongs in essence to those men of the past such as dozen specialties, my book can never do full justice to
Hippocrates, Galen, Celsus, Harvey, Vesalius, Malpighi, the subject of the history of medicine because it is vast
Bernard, Pasteur, Lister, and others whose discoveries and almost endless. An element of judgment has been
have stood the test of time. They laid the framework used in the selection. HopefuUy, future editions will
upon which others have worked to make medicine a benefit from and incorporate readers comments.
marvel of today. In the present world of specialization In summary, I must thank my colleagues at the
where we know more and more about less, we are in Berkshire and Battle Hospitals who took part in the
danger of inteUectuaUy isolating ourselves from the audit of my work during the early stages seven years ago.
knowledge of other walks of life. Today, politics controls I am indebted to David G.T. Bloomer, the Managing
medical policies and threatens medical ethics. Market Director of Parthenon Publishing who painstakingly
forces undermine our efforts to curb tobacco smoking guided his skilled team over the past year to bring my
and pollution. Disintegration of social and family units book to publication. A big thank you to the Parthenon
compound the problems of drug and alcohol addiction. editor for her meticulous scrutiny of my work and
Pollution by industries and cars increases the incidence skillful editing. I am also grateful to the graphics team
of chest diseases. Mass media such as television and radio for assembly and reproduction of the illustrations
mold people s concepts of health and disease. Ready Last but not least I dedicate this book to my wife
access to computers and faxes may undermine patient Vasanthi and my two children, Chuchi and Kevin, whose
confidentiality. Genetic engineering has also produced time with me over the past decade I stole to complete
several ethical dilemmas. Specialized surgery, such as this monumental task.
cardiac transplant, saves relatively few lives but take a Anton Sebastian
April 1999
Anton Sebastian MBBS MRCP is a consultant physician in general medicine with a life-long interest in the history of
medicine and related sciences. He has developed one of the finest private collections of antiquarian books in these fields,
currently totalling over 3000 volumes, including many original editions dating from the early sixteenth century onwards.
Following the completion of his postgraduate training at the Charing Cross Hospital, London and Kingston Hospital,
Surrey, he has held a number of appointments both in Great Britain and overseas. He is currently a consultant physician
at the Victoria Infirmary, Glasgow.
VI
Dictionary of the History of Medicine ABBOTT
377 BC), Galen (AD 129-200), Paul ofAegina (625-690),
Ptolemy and Euclid through turbulent times in history.
A
According to the Fihrist (Index of Sciences), compiled in
AD 987, ten of Hippocrates’ works were translated by
Hunayan ibn Ishaq or Johannitus (809—873) and his pupil
Isa ibnYahya and the 16 books of Galen were translated by
Hunayan and his pupil, Hubaysh ibn el-Hassan, who was
also his nephew.
Abbe, Ernest (1840—1905) A German physicist from
Aaron of Alexandria Jewish physician and presbyter in the Eisenach who became professor at the university of Jena in
yth century, who is supposed to have written 30 books on 1870 before he was made director of the Astronomical and
medicine in Syrian, many now lost. Most of his remaining meteorological Institute in 1878. He was partner at the
works compiled, from Greek, were called the Pandects of optical company of Carl Zeiss (1816—1888) who first
Aaron and were translated into Arabic by the Syrian Jew, brought the improved microscope to the market. Abbe
Maseijawaihi, in AD 683. Some of Aaron’s work was cited modernised the microscope by adding the apochromatic
by the Arabian physician, Rhazes (850—932) who men­ objective, and the oil immersion method (first suggested by
tioned Aaron as one of the first to describe smallpox and John Ware Stephenson) in 1878. He also introduced the
measles, which were brought into Egypt following the con­ sub-stage condenser in 1886. At the death of his partner Carl
quest by the Arabians in AD 640.The first three chapters of Zeiss in 1888, Abbe became the owner of the optical works.
the first tract in Haly Abbas (930-994) famous book He improved the technique of phase contrast microscopy in
Al-Kitabul-Maliki also contains some discussions on the 1892.
writings of Aaron along with those of Hippocrates
Abbe technique See Abbe, Robert.
(460—377 BC), Galen (AD 129—200), Oribasius (325—403)
and Paul ofAegina (625-690). Abbe, Robert (1851-1928) Surgeon from New York, USA
who introduced the use of catgut for suturing the intestines
Abactus [Latin: abigere, to drive out] Term used by Roman
in 1889. He also devised the method of dilating the
physicians for miscarriage.
esophageal stricture in a retrograde fashion by opening the
Abadie sign Spasm of levator palpebrae muscle of the eye as stomach to receive a ‘string saw’ from the buccal end and
a sign in exophthalmic goiter, described at Paris, France in cutting the remaining tissue that contributed to the
1877 by Charles A. Abadie (1842-1932), ophthalmologist. stricture. The Abbe technique was named after him.
Abaptiston or Ababtista [Greek: a, negative + babtiston, to
sink under] Ancient surgical instrument in the form of a
circular saw described by Galen (129—200), Fabricius ab
Aquapendente (1537-1619) and Johann Schultes (1595-
1645). It was used to trephine the cranium. An earlier form
of the instrument was cone-shaped so as to prevent the
instrument sinking into the dura mater, hence its name.
Abbasides Second line of rulers and descendants of Abul
Abbas, the first Saracen Caliph of the Eastern Caliphate of
Baghdad, from AD 750—1250. Abul Abbas on his accession
transferred the Caliphate to Baghdad which became a great
city of science and literature. At one time it had 860
Abbe technique for division of esophageal stricture. Hochberg, LA, 1960,
licensed physicians with numerous hospitals.The dynasty of
Thoracic Surgery before the 20th Century. Courtesy of Vantage Press,
Abbasides included Harun-Al-Rashid,Al-Mansur and Al-
New York
Mamun (AD 813-833) who encouraged the collection and
translation of Greek and Roman medical classics into
Abbott Laboratories See Abbott, Wallace Calvin.
Arabic. Their efforts, especially those of Almamon or Al-
Mamun, the son of Caliph Harun-Al-Rashid, resulted in Abbott, Alexander Crever (1860-1935) Bacteriologist from
the preservation of the earlier works of Hippocrates (460— Philadelphia, USA who designed a process for detecting
ABBOTT Dictionary of the History of Medicine
spores in bacteria with the help of methylene blue and vascular insufficiency was first described by
fuchsin. J. Schnitzler in 1901.
Abbott, Edville Gerhardt (1871-1938) Orthopedic surgeon Abdominal hernia [Latin: abdomen, heUy + hernia, rupture]
from Portland, Maine, USA who designed a treatment for Protrusion of a structure through an opening in the abdom­
scoliosis using bandages and a frame, followed by a series of inal wall. One of the first monographs on abdominal hernia
plasterjackets. was written by Thomas PridginTeale (1801—1868) of Leeds,
UK in 1846. The Ball operation for the radical cure of
Abbott, Maude Elizabeth Seymour (1869-1940) Canadian
abdominal hernia was described in 1887 by Charles Bent
pioneer in the field of pediatric cardiology She published
Ball (1851-1916), surgeon and proctologist from Dublin,
the results of a study into congenital heart disease that
Ireland.
showed that it was associated with an 18% risk of other mal­
formations. Soon after the death of Sir William Osier Abdominal hysterectomy See hysterectomy.
(1849—1919) in 1919, Abbott published a memorial volume
Abdominal injuries [Latin: abdomen, heUy; French: in, neg­
to his work. She is also famous for her promotion of medical
ative +jus (jur-), right] Henri de Mondeville (1260—1320),a
education for women in Canada.
surgeon to King Philip-le-Bel of France, was one of the first
Abbott, Wallace Calvin (1857—1921) Founder of the Abbott to write on abdominal injuries r.1306. In his treatise he
Laboratories. Born into poverty in Vermont, USA, Abbott advised that if the large intestines were wounded they
was able to fulfill his ambition of going to medical school should be sutured ‘as ferriers sew a skin’.The explorer and
only at the age of 22. After obtaining his medical degree doctor, David Livingstone (1813-1873), in his experience
from Michigan University in 1885 he borrowed a small sum during his African travels, described the successful surgical
of money from a friend and startedThe People s Drug Store treatment of extruded abdominal viscera due to injury by
in Ravenswood. He sold his own preparations, such as placing a gourd shell or calabash and sewing it to the
toothache powders, laxatives and cold remedies and in abdominal wall. Many of the patients treated in this manner
the early 1900s introduced a sugar-coating technique for were observed to do well and return to their normal life.
tablets. His company later expanded to become the Abbott The repair of abdominal injuries has also been described by
Alkaloidal Company and by 1930 it had grown into the the ancient Hindus, who excelled in surgery.The works of
pharmaceutical giant, Abbott Laboratories. the Hindu Brahmin Susruta, written r. AD 500, amongst its
hundreds of surgical procedures, describes the surgical
Abderhalden, Emil (1877—1950) Pupil of Emil Fischer
treatment of protrusion of intestines. Abdominal injuries
(1852—1919) and professor of physiology at the University
became a focus of interest owing to their common occur­
of Halle, Germany. He completed a bibliography of
rence during the wars in the preceding three centuries. Sir
alcoholism in 1897 and was the first to describe familial
Cuthbert Wallace’s Abdominal Wounds (1918) is considered
cystinosis in 1903. He edited the series Handbuch der
biologischenArbeitsmethoden, 1920—1939. to be a classic on the subject and his Surgery of the Abdominal
Wounds (1922) is a treasure store of historical information.
Abderhalden-Fanconi Syndrome or Familial cystinosis Another important book. Abdominal Injuries of Warfare, was
was first described by Emil Abderhalden (1877—1950) in
published by G. Gorden-Taylor in 1939.
1903 .The occurrence of glycosuria and phosphaturia in the
Abdominal pregnancy See ectopic pregnancy.
condition was described by Guido Fanconi (1892—1979) in
1936. See cystinosis, Fanconi syndrome. Abdominal surgery [Latin: chirurgia; Greek: cheir, hand +
Abdominal [Latin: aWomew, belly]. ergon, work] The era of modern abdominal surgery started
in the 19th century.The first splenectomy was performed by
Abdominal aneurysm [Latin: abdomen,heUy; Greek: aneurys-
Carl Friedrich Quittenbaum (1793—1852) of Germany in
ma, a dilatation; French: eurys, wide] A sac formed by the
1826, but his patient died of shock within six hours.The first
dilatation of the wall of the abdominal aorta. The first suc­
splenectomy in England was performed by Sir Thomas
cessful resection of an abdominal aneurysm and repair with
Spencer Wells (1818-1897) in 1865 and his patient lived for 6
a homologous graft was performed by Charles Dubost
days. The first successful long-term result of the procedure
(b 1914) of Par is, France in 1948. See aortic aneurysm.
was achieved by Jules Emile Pean (1830—1898) of Paris,
Abdominal angina [Latin: abdomen, belly + angere, to stran­ France in 1867. One of the first successful abdominal opera­
gle] A form of spasmodic abdominal pain due to mesenteric tions for intussusception was performed by Sir Jonathan
Dictionary of the History of Medicine ABERCROMBIE
Hutchinson (1828—1913) while he was at London Hospital Abel Method The first chemical extraction of the active
in 1874. The first resection of the stomach for carcinoma principle of the suprarenal gland, performed by John Jacob
was performed by Pean in 1879, but his operation was not Abel (1857-1938) of Johns Hopkins Medical School in
successful. The first successful gastric resection was per­ 1898. He gave the name epinephrine to this extract which is
formed by Theodor Billroth (1829—1894) in 1881. Phineas known as adrenaline in Britain.
Sanborn Conner of Cincinnati, USA did a complete resec­
Abel, Frederick Gottfried (1714—1794) Physician and poet
tion of the stomach in 1884 but his operation was also
from Halberstadt, Germany who took his medical degree at
unsuccessful. Carl Bernhard Schlatter (1864-1934), a Swiss Königsberg. He published a German translation of Juvenal
surgeon, performed the first successful total gastrectomy for in 1788.
carcinoma of the stomach in 1897. A procedure of partial
Abel, John Jacob (1857-1938) Biochemist born in
gastrectomy for carcinoma of the pyloric end of the stom­
Cleveland, Ohio, USA who graduated from the University
ach was devised by William James Mayo (1861—1939) iii
of Michigan. After obtaining his PhD from the same uni­
1900. Polya operation, which is a modification of Billroth
versity in 1883 he went to Europe where he spent 7 years
operation II, was performed in 1911 by a Hungarian sur­
studying under the foremost scientists in Austria and
geon, Jeno Eugene Alexander Polya (1876-1944). His
Germany. He returned to America in 1891 and became pro­
operation involved gastrectomy combined with side-to-
fessor of therapeutics at Michigan. Aged 36 years he was
side anastomosis of the gastric remnant and the duodenum.
appointed as the first professor of pharmacology at Johns
Pólya is supposed to have been killed by Nazis, although his
Hopkins University. His notable contributions to medicine
body was never recovered.
include: construction of the first membrane for artificial
Abdominocentesis [Latin: ahdomino- ; Greek: kentesis, kidneys; first extraction of epinephrine (adrenaline), poste­
puncture] See paracentesis abdominis. rior pituitary hormones, hirudin and specific amino acids
from the blood; and the first determination of the molecu­
Abdominoperineal resection [Latin from Greek: perineon,
lar weight of cholesterol. He was also the first to obtain a
perinaion] Combined abdominoperineal resection for carci­
crystalline form of insulin, in 1926.
noma of the rectum was introduced by WiUiam Ernest Miles
Abella A woman surgeon of the Middle Ages from the
(1869-1947) in 1908. (syn. Miles resection). See Miles operation.
School of Salerno, Italy during the reign of Charles of
Abducent nerve [Latin: ab, away from + ducere, to lead] Anjou around AD 1059. She wrote several medical treatises
(Syn. nervus abducens) The sixth cranial nerve, deriving its including Treatise deAtra Bili and De Natura Seminis Hominis.
name from its relationship to the abductoris oculi or lateral
Abengnefil or Aben-Guefit (997-1075) Arabian physician.
rectus muscle. It was first described by Bartolommeo
He wrote a medical treatise which was translated under the
Eustachio (1524-1574), Italian anatomist.
title De Virtuitibus Medicinarum et Ciborum and printed at
Abdul-Latif or Abu Mohammed Abdul Latiff ibnjusuf (AD Venice, Italy in 1581.
1161—1231) Arabian scientist and traveler in Egypt during
Aberavon Skull In 1910 Arnalt Jones presented the frontal
the time of Saladin (1137-1193), the Sultan of Egypt and
part of a skull belonging to the Neolithic Period, or later
Syria. He taught medicine at Damascus, Aleppo and Egypt
Stone Age, found at Aberavon, south Wales, to the Museum
and has been credited with 166 treatises, some of which are
of the Royal College of Surgeons in London, UK.This and
on medical topics. He also studied human osteology and
a similar skull found in the same region earlier in 1840, pro­
found that many of Galen’s (129—200) writings on the sub­
vided additional evidence for the presence of Neolithic
ject were inaccurate. During his stay in Egypt he wrote a
man in England. See skull.
comprehensive account of the country’s flora and fauna.
Abercrombie, John (1780—1844) Born in Aberdeen, Scot­
Abegg, Richard (1869-1910) Chemist from Danzig, Ger­ land, he graduated in medicine from Edinburgh University.
many. One of the first to realize the chemical significance of He had a successful practice in Edinburgh and became sur­
electrons. In 1897 he proposed that the outer electron shell geon to the Royal Public Dispensary in 1805. He published
governed the chemical properties of the atom. He also did Observations on the Diseases of the Spinal Marrow (1818),
important work on osmotic pressures and freezing point of Pathological and Practical Researches on Diseases of the Brain and
dilute solutions. Abegg died in a ballooning accident at Spinal Cord (1828), the first book on neuropathology and
Koszalin, Poland. several other important medical works.