A Dictionary of Early Christian Beliefs: A Reference Guide to More Than 700 Topics Discussed by the Early Church Fathers

711 Pages·2012·5.68 MB·English

How to use this Dictionary
A Dictionary of Early Christian Beliefs allows the user to quickly ascertain what the early
Christians believed on over 700 different theological, moral, and historical topics, and it
functions as an index to the writings of the ante-Nicene writers, specifically as collected in
the ten-volume work, the Ante-Nicene Fathers.
Why are the beliefs of these early Christian authors important? Because early Chris-
tian testimony holds that many, such as Clement of Rome and Polycarp, personally knew
the apostles of Jesus. They were approved by the apostles and appointed by the apostles to
positions of church leadership. Modern students of church history must largely depend on
these and other early Christian writers for information on topics of major import, such as
who wrote the New Testament documents and how the Christian canon of Scripture
came into being. Furthermore, these early Christians' interpretation of the Scriptures is
among the most valuable commentary on Scripture anywhere. To be sure, none of these
writers claimed divine inspiration; nor did they equate their own writings with Scripture.
They did, however, claim that they were faithfully passing along the faith that the apostles
had delivered to the church. - χ .
• ί
THE ESSENCE OF EARLY CHRISTIANITY
Users of this dictionary should first grasp the ethos of early Christianity. That ethos
can be summarized in two basic principles: (1) the earliest Christians focused on living in
the light of the Christian message and explaining that message to nonbelievers rather than
on sharpening their theological prowess; and (2) early Christian doctrine is less elaborate
and less defined than later formulations.
To say that the early Christians focused on living the gospel rather than on theologi-
cal hair-splitting does not mean that individuals taught whatever they wanted. There were
recognized boundaries that prevented such a laissez-faire attitude. Nonetheless, to the
early Christians, the heart of their faith consisted of an obedient love relationship with
Christ, not the ability to articulate dogma. None of the testimony of the writers in this vol-
ume arose from some professional theologians; rather, like the apostle Paul, many lived in
the trenches, on the cutting edge of Christian life, and in fact, a substantial number of
these early Christian writers died as martyrs.
The early church concentrated chiefly on the nature of Christian living because the
essential core of Christian belief (i.e., the "rule of faith") can be expressed quite briefly.
The church believed that the Christian faith is a fairly simple one. Cyprian wrote,
When I use the term "early Christians" or "early church," I am referring to the pre-Nicene
Christians and the pre-Nicene Church.
2The Ante-Ntcene Fathers (ed. Alexander Roberts and James Donaldson; 1885-1887; repr. 10
vols. Peabody, Mass.: Hendrickson, 1994).
A Dictionary of Early Christian Beliefs
When the Word of God, our Lord Jesus Christ, came unto all, he gathered alike the learned
and unlearned. He published the teachings of salvation to each sex and every age. He made a
concise summary of His teachings, so that the memory of the scholars might not be burdened
with the heavenly learning. Instead, we could quickly learn what was necessary to a simple
faith. (ANF 5.455).
Echoing those sentiments, Lactantius remarked,
The secrets of the Most High God, who created all things, cannot be attained by our own abil-
ity and perceptions. Otherwise, there would be no difference between God and man, if
human thought could reach to the counsels and arrangements of that eternal majesty.
(ANF 7.9)
Irenaeus criticized the heretics for going beyond the simple teachings of the faith,
saying, "They form opinions on what is beyond the limits of understanding. For this cause
also the apostle says, 'Be not wise beyond what it is fitting to be wise, but be wise pru-
dently'" (ANF 1.548).
WORKING T H R O U G H A SAMPLE T O P I C
Suppose a reader wants to know what the early Christians believed about the fall of
man. Under the entry "Fall of Man," a number of early Christian texts are cited. Note,
though, that selected Scriptures precede the early Christian quotations. The intent is not
to include every biblical passage concerning the fall of man. Rather, these are some of the
key texts used by the early church.
Following the Scripture passages are quotations from early Christians, listed in
approximately chronological order:
The human race . .. from Adam had fallen under the power of death and the guile of the ser-
pent. Each one had committed personal transgression. Justin Martyr (c. 160, E), 1.243.
The citation identifies the source zsjustin Martyr. His name is followed by (c. 160, E). The
parenthetical information indicates that Justin wrote around the year A.D. 160; the Ε veri-
fies that he was an Eastern writer. This affords brief information about the writer, but
more information is required to place his statement in a proper perspective. A section enti-
tled "Who's Who in the Early Church" following this introductory chapter furnishes the
added information.
Justin Martyr (J3S-tan MART-ar) c. 100-165. Philosopher who converted to Christianity
and became a tireless evangelist and apologist. Justin wrote more concerning Christianity than
any other person prior to his time. He is classified herein as eastern, since he was a native of
Samana and his thought patterns were eastern. However, he spent the last years of his life in
Rome, where he was executed as a martyr (c. 165). See JUSTIN MARTYR herein.
The closing statement, "See J U S T I N MARTYR herein," indicates that the main section con-
tains an entry under "Justin Martyr." That entry contains quotations from other early
Christians concerningjustin Martyr.
3
The stated dates of writing are not intended to be precise. For persons whose writings span a
period of only a few years, I have usually attributed all of that person's writing to one median date.
For example, all of Cyprian's works are dated herein as c. 250; however, the writings of authors who
wrote over an extended period of time (such as Origen) are assigned an approximate date for each
work.
Vlll
Preface
For a fuller understanding of Justin Martyr's remarks concerning the topic "the fall
of man," the quotation can be consulted in its full context in the Ante-Nicene Fathers. (In
act, one of the primary purposes of this dictionary is to serve as an index to the Ante-
\'icene Fathers.) The citation ends with the reference, 1.243, which refers to volume one,
rage 243 in the Ante-Nicene Fathers. In Ante-Nicene Fathers 1.243, the source of the quota-
tion is identified as Justin's Dialogue with Trypho, a Jew. The preface to Dialogue with Trypho,
Λ Jew explains that it is an apologetic work written to the Jews. This procedure can be fol-
lowed with each citation within a given entry.
A careful reader will discover that the Dictionary's translation does not exactly match
diat in the Ante-Nicene Fathers. That is because I rendered the citations into contemporary
English. I endeavored, however, not to alter the meaning. My basic procedures in making
these adaptations were as follows: (1) I have replaced archaic and academic words with
contemporary, common words. (2) I have broken down long sentences into two or more
smaller sentences. In doing so, I sometimes reused certain nouns and verbs to make com-
plete sentences. (3) When appropriate, I have rearranged sentence structures to follow a
contemporary English pattern. (4) Where the antecedent of a pronoun lies outside the pas-
sage being quoted, I have supplied it. For example, in the course of discussing the heretical
teachings of Marcion, a writer may begin a sentence: "He also teaches. . . ." In such an
instance, I would render the quotation, "Marcion also teaches. . . ." (5) Some early Chris-
dan writers used the editorial "we" when speaking about themselves. When it is clear that
the writer is speaking only for himself, I have rendered his plural pronouns in the singular.
These steps should render these passages from the early Christians more accessible
tor the modern reader. No attempt, however, was made to retranslate the pre-Nicene
writings from the available Latin and Greek texts.
Even though I collected several quotations, these are obviously only representative,
not comprehensive. At the end of the last quotation is a further directive: See also 2.102,
103. This indicates that additional relevant material appears in volume 2, pages 102 and
103. The full text has not been given since they are similar in nature and are from one of
the same authors as those already cited. For a more thorough study, look up those texts as
well. A final instruction occurs at the end of the article.
"SEE ALSO ADAM; ATONEMENT; DEATH; EVE; EVIL, PROBLEM OF; FLESH; FREEWILL AND PRE-
DESTINATION; MAN, DOCTRINE OF; SALVATION; TREE OF KNOWLEDGE."
These additional subjects are related concepts that should be examined in any full
treatment of the topic, "fall of man." Thus to better grasp the early church's view of the fall
of man, understanding early Christian teachings about death, the atonement, salvation,
and the nature of man becomes critical.
I offer one caveat: Please remember that what the early Christian writers do not say
can often be just as important as what they do say. In some cases, the early Christian writers
knew nothing at all about some of the doctrines that certain Christians today regard as
nindamental tenets of the faith. So do not be alarmed if a cross-reference does not lead to a
fuller discussion. That should not happen very often, but when it does, it is not a mistake;
Note that the Hendrickson Publishers' edition reorders the sequence of the volumes to
•uke the index volume, volume 10 (not 9 as in past editions), the last volume. Volume 10 now in-
cludes an expanded index (Annotated Index of Authors and works) and two appendixes (A. Patristic
Exegetical Works and B. The Liturgical Year).
IX
A Dictionary of Early Christian Beliefs
rather, in this manner I attempted to index what the early Christians did not say. For
example, at the end of the list of quotations under Mary, you will find a cross-reference to
"Woman Clothed with the Sun and Moon." However, when you check the various quota-
tions under "Woman Clothed with the Sun and Moon," you will find that all of the writers
understood this woman in Revelation to be the church, not Mary. In short, I have indexed
what the early Christian writers did not say.
ACQUIRING A FOUNDATIONAL UNDERSTANDING
To accurately grasp what the early Christians said about a given topic it becomes
important to have a basic understanding of three concepts: (1) Marcion and the Gnos-
tics, (2) the early Christian concept of the Logos, and (3) the Scriptures of the early
church.
Marcion and the Gnostics
Many early Christian writings were polemical works directed against the heretic
Marcion or against various Gnostics. Both Marcion and the Gnostics taught that the earth
and everything in it (including people) were created by a God they called the Demiurge.
They regarded the Demiurge not as the God of the New Testament; rather, the Demiurge
was thought to be more of a demigod, with certain imperfect traits. Gnostics sometimes
portrayed him as an unmerciful, unloving, and vengeful God. On occasion they referred
to him as the "just God" of the Old Testament in contrast with the "good God" of the
New Testament.
Marcion and the Gnostics also taught an exaggerated view of the fall of man. They
believed that all physical creation—including the physical body—was inherently flawed
and incapable of salvation. Accordingly, they denied the resurrection of the body, as well as
the efficacy of baptism and communion. Many taught that the Son of God did not really
become man and that he did not really die on the cross. In their teaching, the Son only
appeared to do so. These Gnostics (including a group called Docetists, from the Greek
word dokeo, "seem, appear") are the persons whom John spoke of as the "antichrists," for
they denied that Jesus had come in the flesh (2 John 7).
Logos
It would be quite difficult to understand most of the early Christian writings with-
out some appreciation of the meanings and significance of the Greek word logos, particu-
larly as a title of Christ. Since our English translations usually translate logos as "Word"
when this title is applied to the Son, English-speaking Christians usually fail to appreciate
the term logos and its significance. The Moffatt version of the New Testament, however,
often leaves logos untranslated when it is used as a title for the Son. For example, it renders
John 1:1: "The Logos existed in the very beginning, the Logos was with God, the Logos
was divine." It translates Revelation 19:13 as follows: "He is clad in a robe dipped in blood
(his name is called THE LOGOS OF GOD.)"
Treatment of the "Gnostics" as a defined and understood group is problematic. Modem
scholars use the expression "Gnosticism" to describe a wide variety of groups and beliefs among
those groups. The "origins" and nature of "Gnosticism" remains a point of scholarly debate.
X
Preface
Moffatt left the term logos untranslated because in Greek that term means far more
rtun simply "word." Its range of meaning could include "reason," "rational principle," and
rtrn "mind." Early Christians use the term logos extensively when speaking about the Son
<•' God. When John refers to the Son as being the Logos of God, the early Christians
stood him to mean that the Son is the eternal Rational Principle of the Father, the
.-+::;cr's Counselor before all ages.
The Early Christian Scriptures
To comprehend and appreciate what the early Christians have to say a thorough
irKJwledge and grasp of Scripture are indispensable. That is because the early Christians
counded all of their fundamental beliefs on Scripture. Nonetheless, a first reading of early
-. hristian quotations from Scripture can be perplexing. Not infrequently, their citations do
•u* read the same as do our modern Bibles. There are several reasons for this. First, when
quoting from the Old Testament, the early Christians nearly always quoted from the Sep-
roagint (i.e., the Greek Old Testament, including the Apocrypha)—as did the apostles.
See SEPTUAGINT herein.] In contrast, modern Old Testament translations are usually
Msed on the Masoretic Text. Secondly, we must remember that the early Christians had
no concordances, topical Bibles, study aids, computer Bibles, or even handy personal
Bibles. As a result, the early Christians often had to quote Scriptures from memory, which
meant they sometimes misquoted a verse or two. Furthermore, particularly in the case of
ibe Latin writers, citations seem to have come from a version or text that differed slightly
trom later versions or editions.
THE ANTE-NICENE FATHERS AS A SOURCE FOR
EARLY CHRISTIAN WRITINGS
Of course, the Ante-Nicene Fathers are not the only available translations of the pre-
Nicene writings. Still, I chose the present edition of the Ante-Nicene Fathers as the basis for
this work for several reasons. First, the translations in the Ante-Nkene Fathers are usually
more literal than more recent translations. Secondly, other sets of translations contain only
a small portion of the pre-Nicene writings. Finally, as a practical matter, the Ante-Nkene
Fadiers is the only set of the pre-Nicene writings affordable to the average person.
Theological Bias
I have made every effort to make this volume as theologically neutral as I can. I have
indexed and cross-referenced most topics under terms familiar to both Catholics and Prot-
estants. Although the Dictionary does not purport to be exhaustive, I have attempted to
include every significant quotation under each of the indexed topics. No essential quota-
tion has been purposefully omitted.
Scope of this Work
The Dktionary does not include all of the works contained in the Ante-Nkene Fathers
because a number of those works are either spurious, post-Nicene, or Gnostic in origin.
6
For examples of how the early Christians understood the word logos, see CHRIST, DIVINITY
OF; LOGOS; and WORD OF GOD (CHRIST) in this digest.
XI
A Dictionary of Early Christian Beliefs
This volume covers only recognized pre-Nicene works whose authors are considerec
orthodox by the pre-Nicene church. Therefore, I have excluded the following works:
•The spurious letters of Ignatius (vol. 1).
•The Martyrdom of Ignatius, which is post-Nicene (vol. 1).
•The apocryphal and Gnostic Gospels (vol. 8).
•The pseudo-Clementine literature (vol. 8).
•The false papal decretals (vol. 8).
•The post-Nicene works incorrectly attributed to Hippolytus, such as Against Beron and
Helix (vol. 5).
•The post-Nicene works incorrectly attributed to Gregory Thaumaturgus (vol. 6).
•The quotations from the ninth-century bishop, Photius (vol. 6).
•The various liturgies, all of which are in a post-Nicene form (vol. 7).
•The various Syriac works, except for a few scattered references (vol. 8). Although
these works are worth reading, nearly all of them are from the fourth or fifth
centuries.
After considerable deliberation, I have included the Apostolic Constitutions (vol. 7) ir
this index, even though strong arguments enst to exclude this work. By way of objection.
these Constitutions were not compiled until nearly the end of the fourth century—a hali
century or more after Nicea. Furthermore, the documents betray a spurious facade, pre-
tending to have been written directly by the apostles themselves. The editor of the Apostolic
Constitutions even makes the ludicrous attempt to include the Constitutions in the New Tes-
tament canon (ANF 7.505). Despite these objectionable elements, the bulk of the Constitu-
tions is pre-Nicene in origin, and is thus included. I did exclude material in the Constitutions
that is almost certainly post-Nicene in nature (or else I have included such passages in this
7
digest with the caveat "post-Nicene" ).
Three Mistakes to Avoid
Perhaps the most common mistake would be to employ this resource as a database
for proof-texts. It would be tempting to sift through it, noting quotations that bolster our
personal beliefs and discarding those that do not fit. Such an approach, however, inevitably
misuses the early Christian writings. By selectively choosing quotations, we make it appear
that the early Christians believed exactly as we do (which is sometimes not the case). In
short, instead of learning from those close to the apostles in time and spirit, we simply use
them for our own designs.
Another common mistake is to read the early Christian writers as though these writ-
ers were making dogmatic theological pronouncements every time they spoke. Generally,
the pre-Nicene Christian writers were not attempting to define precise points of dogma
for the rest of the church. Most of their theological discussions come up in the context of
Since chapters 1 through 32 of Book 7 of the Constitutions simply reiterate the Didache, I have
not indexed those chapters. All of that material is included under the citations for the Didache.
Xll
Preface
cither (1) explaining to outsiders what Christians believed or (2) contrasting the tenets of
particular heretics with what the general body of Christians believed. They were not nor-
mally trying to convince other "orthodox" Christians what to believe.
We also must be careful not to read technical or post-Nicene meanings into theolog-
ical terms used by the pre-Nicene Christians. Very rarely did "orthodoxy" (itself a fifth-
century term) in the early church turn on the issue of using this word instead oithat word.
The early Christians understood orthodoxy in terms of general concepts, not meticulous
theological definitions. As Clement of Alexandria put it, "Those who are particular about
words, and devote their time to them, miss the point of the whole picture" (ANF 2.347).
Although theology was important to the early church, it took a back seat to living the
Christian life.
XU1
A B A N D O N M E N T O F I N F A N T S King Abgar was renowned for his valor
among the nations that were east of the Euph-
SEE ABORTION, INFANTICIDE.
rates. However, his body was wasting away
with a grievous disease, one for which there
\ B E L
was no cure among men. But when Abgar
.nd the Lord respected Abel and his offering. Gen.
heard and was informed of the name of Jesus
and about the mighty works that He d i d , . . . he
sent a letter of request [to Jesus] through one
By faith Abel offered to God a more excellent sacrifice
of his slaves. Abgar begged Him to come and
an Cain. Heb. 11:4.
heal him of his disease. However, our Savior
did not comply with his request at the time
On you may come all the righteous blood shed on the
that he asked. Still, He sent Abgar a letter in
.mh, from the blood of righteous Abel to the blood of
reply. Eusebius (c. 315, E), 8.651.
Zechariah. Matt. 23:35.
This Abgar was called Avak-air (great man)
We show that both earthly oblations and spiri-
because of his gentleness, wisdom, and size.
iial sacrifices were foreshadowed. .. . Cain
N o t being able to pronounce well, the Greeks
>reshadowed those of the elder son, that is, of
and the Syrians called him Abgar. In the second
MMCI. And the opposite sacrifices are demon-
year of his reign, all the districts of Armenia
trated to be those of the younger son, Abel. He
became vassals to the Romans. Moses of Chorene
^presents our [Christian] people. Tertulliati (c.
(date uncertain, E), 8.702; extended discussion:
97, W), 3.156.
8.651-8.653.
Beloved brethren, let us imitate righteous
SEE ALSO ARMENIA; EDESSA; SEVENTY, T H E
\bel, who initiated martyrdoms. For he was
(DISCIPLES).
:he first to be slain for righteousness' sake.
' :yprian (c. 250, W), 5.348.
A B L U T I O N
In the sacrifices that Abel and Cain first Ablution refers to ceremonial washing before
offered, God looked not at their gifts, but at prayer or other religious observance.
their hearts. Abel was acceptable in his gift
It is said that we should go to the sacrifices
because he was acceptable in his heart. Abel was
and prayers washed, clean, and bright. It is said
peaceable and righteous; he sacrificed in inno-
that this external adornment and purification
cence to God. He thereby taught others that
are practiced as a symbol. Clement of Alexandria
when they, too, bring their gift to the altar, they
(c. 195, E), 2.435.
should come with the fear of God and with a
simple heart. Cyprian (c. 250, IV), 5.454; see also [DESCRIBING A LOVE FEAST:] After washing
2.105. the hands and the bringing in of lights, each
person is asked to stand forth and sing a hymn
ABGAR, KING to God, as best he can. This can be either a
hymn from the Holy Scriptures or one of his
Abgar was the customary name given to various
own composing. Tertullian (c. 197, W), 3.47.
kings of Edessa. The passages below apparently
refer to two different Abgars. The first one re- What reason is there to go to prayer with
fers to Abgar the Black, c. A.D. 13-50. hands indeed washed, but the spirit foul? It is
1
ABOMINATION OF DESOLATION
spiritual purities that are necessary for our care)—yet, when he has passed into life, to kill
hands, so that they can be "lifted up pure" him. We also teach that it is wrong to expose an
from falsehood, and from murder. .. . These infant. For those who expose them are guilty of
are the true purities. The true ones are not child murder. Athenagoras (c. 175, E), 2.147.
those which most persons are superstitiously
Fathers, forgetting about their children who
careful about—such as using water at every
have been exposed, often unknowingly have
prayer, even when they are coming from a
intercourse with a son that has debauched him-
bath of the whole body. When I was carefully
self and with daughters who are prostitutes.
making a thorough investigation of this prac-
tice, . . . I ascertained that it was a commemo- Clement of Alexandria (c. 195, E), 2.216.
rative act, relating to the surrender of the Lord
Although keeping parrots and curlews, the
[when Pilate washed his hands] . However,
[pagans] do not adopt the orphan child. Rather,
we pray to the Lord; we do not surrender him.
they expose children who are born at home.
Tertullian (c. 198, W), 3.685.
Yet, they take up the young of birds. So the\
In this manner, the Essenes perform ablutions prefer irrational creatures to rational ones!
Clement of Alexandria (c. 195, E), 2.219.
in cold water. And after being cleansed in this
manner, they retire together into one room.
What cause is there for the exposure of a
Hippolytus fc. 225, W), 5.134.
child? The man who did not desire to beget
chiJdren had no right to marry at all. He cer-
SEE ALSO PRAYER (II. PRAYER POSTURES A N D
tainly does not have the right to become the
C U S T O M S ) .
murderer of his children, because of licentious
indulgence. Clement of Alexandria (c. 195, E),
A B O M I N A T I O N OF D E S O L A T I O N
2.368.
SEE DANIEL, B O O K OF.
In our case, murder is once for all forbidden
A B O R T I O N , I N F A N T I C I D E
Therefore, we may not destroy even the fetus
The term "exposing infants" refers to the prac- in the womb, while as yet the human being
tice of abandoning infant children along road- derives blood from other parts of the body for
sides, leaving them cither to die of exposure or its sustenance. To hinder a birth is merely ι
to be taken by someone, usually to be raised as a speedier way to kill a human. It does not matte;
slave or a prostitute. whether you take away a life that has been born,
or destroy one that is not yet born. Tertullian (c.
If men fight and hurt a woman with child, so that
191, W), 3.25.
she gives birth prematurely ... [and] if any lasting
harm follows, then you shall give life for life, eye for First of all, you [pagans] expose your chil-
eye, tooth for tooth, hand forhand, footforfoot. Exod. dren, so that they may be taken up by any com-
21:22,23. passionate passer-by, to whom they are quite
unknown! Tertullian (c. 191, W), 3.26.
You shall not kill the child by obtaining an
abortion. Nor, again, shall you destroy him Although you are forbidden by the laws to kill
after he is bom. Barnabas (c. 70-130, E), 1.148. newborn infants, it so happens that no laws arc
evaded with more impunity or greater safety.
You shall not murder a child by abortion nor
And this is done with the deliberate knowledge
kill one who has been born. Didache (c. 80-140,
of the public. Tertullian (c. 191, W), 3.123.
E), 1.377.
Among surgeons' tools there is a certain
They bear children, but they do not destroy
instrument that is formed with a nicely-
their offspring. Letter to Diognetus (c. 125-200),
adjusted flexible frame for first of all opening
1.27.
die uterus and then keeping it open. It also h;i·
We say that those women who use drugs to a circular blade, by means of which the limbs
bring on abortion commit murder. And we also within the womb are dissected with careful, but
say they will have to give an account to God for unflinching care. Its last appendage is a blunted
the abortion. So on what basis could we com- or covered hook, by which the entire fetus is
mit murder? For it does not belong to the same extracted by a violent delivery. There is also a
person to regard the very fetus in the womb as a copper needle or spike, by which the actual
created being (and therefore an object of God's death is brought about in this treacherous rob-
2