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A DICTIONARYOF CONTEMPORARY by BERGEN EVANS and COR.NELIA EVANS RANDOM HOUSE NEW YORK l Fourteenth Printing @Copyright, 1957, by Bergen Evans and Cornelia Evans All rights reserved under International and Pan-American Copyright Conventions Published in New York by Random House, Inc., and simultaneously in Toronto, Canada by Random House of Canada Limited. Library of Congress Catalog Card Number: 57-5379 Manufactured in the United States of America P R E F A C E When we speak or write we want to be interested in “book learning.” They are not understood and respected. We want to con- used by educated people and hence are vey our meaning and we want to do it in a regarded as “incorrect” and serve as the way that will command admiration. To mark of a class. There is nothing wrong accomplish these ends we must know the about using them, but in a country such as meanings of words, their specific meanings ours where for a generation almost every- and their connotations, implications and body has had at least a high school educa- overtones, and we must know how to com- tion or its equivalent few people are willing bine words effectively into sentences. to use expressions that are not generally A dictionary can help us to understand approved as “correct.” the meaning of a word. But the only way A man usually thinks about his work in to understand a word fully is to see it in the language that his co-workers use. Turns use in as many contexts as possible. This of speech that may have been natural to a means that anyone who wants to improve statistician when he was a boy on a farm his vocabulary must read a great deal and simply do not come to his mind when he is must make sure that he understands what talking about statistics. Anybody whose he reads. There is no short cut to this kind work requires intellectual training-and of knowledge. If a man thinks that noisome this includes everybody whose work in- and noisy are synonyms, if he uses focus volves any amount of writing-speaks and nexlls interchangeably, if he sees no standard English naturally and inevitably, difference between refute and deny and if with possibly a few insignificant variations. he assumes that disinterested means unin- But many people who speak well write terested, he will not say what he means. ungrammatical sentences. There seems to Indeed, he may even say the exact opposite be some demon that numbs their fingers of what he means. when they take hold of a pen, a specter Respectable English is a much simpler called “grammar” which they know they matter. It means the kind of English that never understood in school and which rises is used by the most respected people, the to fill them with paralyzing uncertainty sort of English that will make readers or whenever they stop to think. listeners regard you as an educated person. The only way to exorcise this demon is Doubts about what is respectable English to state some of the fundamental facts of and what is not usually involve quest:ions language. And one of the most fundamental of grammar. There are some grammatical is that language changes constantly. People constructions, such as that there dog and living in the United States in the middle of he ain’t come yet, that are perfectly intelli- the twentieth century do not speak the gible but are not standard English. Such English of Chaucer or of Shakespeare. expressions are used by people who are not They don’t even speak the English of vi PREFACE Woodrow Wilson. The meanings of words The first grammars published in English change and the ways in which words are were not intended to teach English but to used in sentences change. Silly once meant get a child ready for the study of Latin. “holy,” fond meant “foolish,” beam meant They were simplified Latin grammars with “tree” and tree meant “beam,” and so on English illustrations. Of course they were through many thousands of words. The incomprehensible, though they probably pronoun you could once be used with a made Latin easier when the child got to it. singular verb form, as in Was you ever in Later, when Latin was no longer an im- Baltimore? Today we must say were you. portant part of education, the schools con- The word news could once be used as a tinued to use books of this kind on the plural, as in These news were suddenly theory that they taught “superior” English, spread throughout the city. Today we must that is, English that resembled Latin. treat it as a singular and say This news was But the rules of Latin grammar require spread. constructions that are absurd and affected Since language changes this much, no in English, totally unsubstantiated by Eng- one can say how a word “ought” to be lish usage. And they often condemn con- used. The best that anyone can do is to structions that the greatest writers of say how it is being used, and this is what English use freely. The common man, even a grammar should tell us. It should give us the common educated man, has had no information on what is currently accepted desire to be “superior” in some mysterious as good English, bringing together as many way and these Latin rules have had very details as possible under a few general rules little effect on the way English is actually or principles, so that it will be easier for us used by educated adults. But the rules have to remember them. had this effect, that millions of adults be- The older grammars, by some one of lieve that what seems natural to them is which almost every adult today was be- probably wrong. wildered in his school days, were very full In analyzing the language the old-fash- of the spirit of what “ought” to be done ioned textbooks use concepts, or terms, and drew the sanction of their “oughts” that are valid when applied to Latin but from logic rather than from what people are almost meaningless when applied to an actually said. Thus in such a sentence as uninflected language such as modern Eng- There is an apple and a pear in the basket lish. The difference between a noun and an most school grammars up until a genera- adjective, or between an adjective and an tion ago would have said that one “ought” adverb, for example, is plain in Latin but to use are and not is. And the schoolchil- not in English. No grammar can explain dren (some of whom later became school- these differences in English without becom- teachers) docilely accepted the pronounce- ing too involved for an elementary student. ment. However the child would have heard Instead of explaining them, therefore, the the minister, the doctor, and even the authors often write as if no explanation schoolteacher out of school, say is, and were needed, as if the differences were since he couldn’t bring himself to say that obvious to all but the dullest. And most of the book was wrong in school or these us succumb to this. We get tired of feeling eminent people wrong out of school, he stupid and decide, for instance, that an would probably conclude that he didn’t adverb ends in -ly, such as really, and an “understand” grammar. Unfortunate as that adjective doesn’t, such as real. This leads us conclusion might have been, it was at least to feel uneasy at Swing low, sweet chariot, intelligent and preferable to attempting all to wonder how road commissioners can be the rest of his life to speak and write in so illiterate as to urge us to drive slow, and the unreal manner recommended by the to get all hot and bothered in fifty useless textbook. ways. The child who leaves school knowing P R E F A C E that he doesn’t know the ditierence between some details. lr attempts to list the que-s- an adjective and an adverb is unusualIy tions that most people ask, or should ask, strong minded and lucky. about what is now good practice and to For the last fifty years, however, certain give the best answers available. It also con- grammarians have been making a scientific tains a full discussion of English grammar, study of English. They have been finding a discussion which does not assume that out how English is really used by different the student can already read and write groups of people, instead of theorizing Latin. about how it might be used or dogmatizing If any reader wants to make a systematic about how it ought to be used. The investi- study of English grammar he should begin gations of these men have shown us which with the entry parts of speech and follow grammatical forms are used by educated through alI the cross references. Some of people and which are not. They make it these may prove difficult, but no one needs possible to define and analyze what is to study it who is not interested. One can standard speech and what is not. use good English without understanding the They show us that standard English principles behind it just as one can drive allows a certain amount of variation. That a car without understanding mechanics. is, there is often more than one acceptable The individual word entries do not as- way of using the same words. The most sume that the reader is interested in gram- obvious variations are geographical, Some matical principles. They assume that he words are used differently in different parts wants the answer to a specific question in of the country, but each use is respectable the least possible time. The information in in its own locality. Some variations are them has been drawn chiefly from the Ox- peculiar to a trade or profession (such as ford English Dictionary, the seven-volume the medical use of indicate). These are as English grammar of Otto Jespersen, and respectable as the group that uses them but the works of Charles Fries. This has been they are likely to be unintelligible to the supplemented by information from A Dic- general public. When they are used solely tionary of American English, edited by Sir to mark a difference, to give an esoteric William Craigie and James Hulbert, A Dic- flavor, they constitute a jargon. tionary of Americanisms, by Mitford M. There are also differences between for- Mathews, The American Language, with mal and informal English. Formal English its two supplements, by H. L. Mencken, is solemn and precise. It dots all the i’s and The American College Dictionary. Fur- and crosses all the t’s. Informal or collo- ther information has been drawn from ar- quial English is more sprightly and leaves ticles appearing in American Speech over more to the imagination. Forty years ago the past twenty years and from the writings it was considered courteous to use formal of George 0. Curme, John Lesslie Hall, English in speaking to strangers, implying Robert A. Hall, Jr., Sterling A. Leonard, they were solemn and important people. Albert H. Marckwardt, Robert C. Pooley, Today it is considered more flattering to Thomas Pyles, and others. Some of the address strangers as if they were one’s in- statements concerning differences in British timate friends. This is a polite lie, of and American usage are based on the writ- course; but it is today’s good manners. ings of H. W. Fowler, Eric Partridge, Sir Modern usage encourages informality wher- Alan Herbert, Ivor Brown, Sir Ernest Gow- ever possible and reserves formality for ers and H. W. Horwih. very few occasions. The authors want to thank George ElIi- This dictionary is intended as a reference son, Sarah Bekker, Bernice Levin, Irene Le book on current English in the United Compte and James K. Robinson for help States. It is designed for people who speak in assembling and organizing this material. standard English but are uncertain about They also want to thank Esther Sheldon for . . . P R E F A C E VII1 many helpful comments, Jess Stein and familiar with current tendencies in English. Leonore C. Hauck for the contributions They hope that this wide acquaintance with they made in editing this work, and Joseph the language has kept them from giving too M. Bernstein for his thoughtful proof- much weight to their personal preferences. reading. But they have a personal bias, and this Throughout the book the authors have should be stated clearly. The authors are tried to present the facts about current prejudiced in favor of literary forms. They usage fairly and accurately. They are aware prefer the forms used by the great writers that there is more than one kind of English. of English to forms found only in technical As children, living in the north of England, journals. This means that if they list a non- they spoke a dialect that was in many ways literary form as acceptable there is con- nearer to the English of Chaucer than to clusive evidence that it is accepted. But that of the New York Times. They have, they may have listed some forms as ques- therefore, a personal affection for forms tionable that are standard in some areas or that are older than our current Iiterary professions. The reader must decide these forms. As adults they have both had occa- things for himself. To anyone who has a sion, over many years, to read a great deal serious interest in the language that he of manuscript English, the unedited writ- hears and uses, the authors would like to ings of college students and adults working say, in the words of Socrates, “Agree with in various professions. They are therefore me if I seem to speak the truth.” A DICTIONARY OF CONTEMPORARY AMERICAN USAGE To Aunt Cornelia A a and an are two forms of the same word. The torted in character, so vitiated, debased, and form an is used before a vowel sound, as in an corrupt that he seeks out evil (These dens are umbrella, an honest man. The form a is used the haunts of the worst and most depraved men before a consonant sound, as in a European, a in the city). When applied to character, as it one-horse town, a historical novel, a hotel. The often is, it again suggests a wilful corruption, form a should be used before an h that is pro- springing from a distorted or perverted nature nounced, as in history and hotel. Formerly these (Only a depraved taste could regard these daubs h sounds were not pronounced and an historical as art). A vicious person is addicted to vice, novel, an hotel, were as natural as an honorable malignant and aggressive in his wickedness, man, an hour, an heiress. This is no longer true violent and dangerous (Drunkenness does not and these archaic an’s, familiar from English make men vicious, but it shows those who are literature, should not be repeated in modem to be so). writing. abbreviations are shortened or contracted forms A, an, and any are all derived from the same of words or phrases, used as a symbol of the source. A (or an) is called the indefinite article. whole. They are designed for the eye as acro- Actually-_. it is used to indicate a definite but un- nyms are designed for the ear. In written specified individual, as in a man in our town, a language the abbreviation has always been val- library book. In this sense the individual may uable, for scribes must save time and space represent the type, or the entire class, as in a cat whether they write on papyrus, paper or stone. has nine lives. When we wish to refer indefinitely The most famous abbreviation of antiquity, to a single person or thing we say any, as in perhaps of all time, was SPQRSenatus Popu- any man in our town, any library book. A may lusque Romanus-the great insigne of Rome. also be used to mean one, as in wait a minute In general, a reader coming across an ab- and in a day or two. In its first sense, a may be brevation visualizes or sounds the whole word be used before the word one, as in we did not represented by it, as in Dr. Co., mfg., cf., pres. find a one. This is acceptable English whenever and so on. Many abbreviations, however, have there is good reason to stress the idea of one- been taken over into speech, probably, as a rule, ness. But some people consider the construction when the original word or phrase was cumber- improper, or unreasonable, and claim that it is some, as in C.O., DP, IQ, S.R.O., R.S.V.P., better to say a single one. It is hard to see why G.A.R., D.A.R., and the like. This tendency to it should be wrong to express the idea of unity enunciate the abbreviation, rather than the full twice (a, one) and right to do so three times word or phrase for which it stands, is increasing. (a, single, one). College students talk of math, lit, poly sci and The word a (or an) stands before other qual- econ courses without any feeling of being breezy ifying words, as in a very large sum of money, or slangy. What was once the province of vulgar except words or phrases which indicate an ex- speech and the literary domain of such writers treme degree of something. These are adverbial as Ring Lardner and S. J. Perelman now freely phrases and precede the word a, as in so very serves the popular press where the full forms of large a sum of money and too small a sum of V.I.P., MC. (often written emcee), G.I., and money. scores of other abbreviations would now seem abandoned; depraved; vicious. An abandoned per- very strange. son-when the word is used with moral implica- Some names and terms are so unpronounce- tions-is one who has given himself up, without able that abbreviations are always used in both further concern for his reputation or welfare, to writing and speaking. Indeed the original forms, immoral courses, one hopelessly sunk in wicked- so far as the general public is concerned, are ness and the indulgence of his appetites (an completely unknown: DDT for dichlorodi- abandoned woman, hardened in sin). It usually phenyl-trichloroethane, ACTH for adrenocor- suggests a passive acceptance of immorality (Is ticotropic hormone, KLM for the Dutch airline he so abandoned as to feel no shame at such an Koninklijke Luchtvaart Maat-schaapij voor accusation?). A depraved person is one so dis- Nederland en Kolonien N.V. abdomen 4 Probably the commonest type of abbrevia- ern Atlantic and Mediterranean, Commander, tion today, and one that seems to be growing Headquarters Support Activities. ever more common, consists of the initials of abdomen. See belly. the words of a name or a phrase: PTA, R.F.D., aberration means wandering from the usual way r.p.m., p.o.w. The government and the army or from the normal course. There are various have contributed many of these new abbrevi- technical uses of the word in biology, optics, ations. There is no general rule, but there is a and other sciences, but the most common pop- tendency, which in time may establish a rule, ular use is in the phrase an aberration of the to omit periods in the names of government mind, where it means a departure from a sound agencies but to include them in other cases. mental state. It does not mean mere absent- This would at least allow us to distinguish AAA mindedness. It should always be used with a (Agricultural Adjustment Administration) from qualifying adjective or prepositional phrase de- A.A.A. (American Automobile Association). scriptive of the nature of the aberration. Another common form of abbreviation is the abhor. See hate. shortening of words: capt., diam., treas. In abide. The past tense is abided or abode. The many instances the shortened forms have been participle is also abided or abode. taken over into the vernacular and occasionally Abode is preferred to abided when the word even into standard usage. Ad, especially for a means dwelled, as in he abode in Boston almost short advertisement (as a want ad), must now all of his life. When the word is used in its be accepted as standard, as also must vet for broader meaning abided is preferred, as in he veterinnry, though it is still colloquial for abided by his promise. But both forms can be veteran except in certain combined forms like used in both senses. Amvets. Co-op is now so universally employed Abide is heavyweight for remain or stay. that it would be pedantic to insist on co- It is properly used in the great hymn “Abide operative. With Me.” It is no lighter when used in the Some abbreviations are formed by con- sense of live or dwell. In all of these uses it traction: supt., patd., arty. or by the retention retains an obsolescent, medieval quality. of only the key consonants: blvd., hdqrs., tsp. This very quality, however, gives the note of Latin phrases are frequently abbreviated, and solemnity that certain occasions deserve. When in the same ways that English words and phrases it means to stand by a person, or one’s word, or are abbreviated. Some appear only as initials: to await the consequences of some momentous c., e.g. Q.E.D., by the way, is always capitalized. act (Abide the event. Others abide the ques- Some are shortened: id., et al., cet. par., aet. tion:/Thou art free), the very quality which Some are contracted: cf., pxt. VOX pop is an makes it improper for lesser uses makes it valu- example of a shortened Latin phrase that has able. Nations abide by the terms of a treaty. crept into common English speech. Ad Zibitrrm The use of the phrase can’t abide to express (“at pleasure,” that is, at the discretion of the dislike (I can’t abide that mnn!) is commonly performer) was originally primarily applied to disparaged. But it has force and flavor. Its use to music. As an abbreviation-ad lib.-it moved describe situations, or more often persons, that over into the drama, took on broader connota- are intolerable and not to be endured strikes the tions and is now accepted as a noun, verb, or proper note of vehemence that certain old Eng- adjective. lish words and words associated with Scripture Here are some abbreviations which fall out- convey. aide the ordinary patterns: ability; capacity. Ability is the power to do, ca- G.Z.The initials of a phrase (“government pacity is the power to receive. Ability can be issue”) which have taken on a meaning different acquired; capacity is innate. Ability is improved from the original term but wryly related to it. by exercise; capacity requires no exercise. A AlStrictly speaking not an abbreviation, pump has an ability to pump a certain amount since it is not a shortening of anything but sim- of fluid. A tank has the capacity to hold a certain ply a symbol. amount. A boxer has the ability to hit, the ca- IOU-A phrase put in terms of initials, al- pacity to take punishment. though they are not literally the initials of the abject apology. When Milton spoke of the fallen words they represent. This is one abbreviation angels rolling in the fires of hell thick be- which is based on sound rather than on sight. strown, abject and lost, he was using abject in There is a euphemistic use of abbreviation- its original sense of cast out or rejected. In in such expressions as g.d. and s.o.b.-which the hackneyed phrase an abject apology it is seeks to make certain phrases not ordinarily not the apology that is abject but the one who used in polite conversation less offensive. To is making the apology. But since there is some- some ears, however, the abbreviation is an added thing contemptible in one who abases himself offense, heaping timidity or affected gentility on too much, a feeling perhaps that he is sacri- indecency or profanity. ficing his dignity in the hope of escaping a The ultimate in abbreviation-the abbrevi- possible punishment, abject in this phrase, as it ation of an abbreviation-is furnished by reflects on the one apologizing, has come to CSCN/CHSA which is an abbreviation of have a connotation of despicable. It is an over- COMSUBCOMNEl..M/COMHEDSUPPACl? worked phrase and should be used sparingly. which is an abbreviation of Commander, Sub- abject poverty is poverty so severe or so pro- ordinate Command, U. S. Naval Forces East- longed that the sufferer from it feels cast