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t.me/Ebooks_Encyclopedia27. t.me/Magazines4all A Brief History of Modern India by Rajiv Ahir I.P.S. With contributions from R. Vidya Sabina Madan Shashi Kumar Saxena Kalpana Rajaram Editor Kalpana Rajaram Revised and Enlarged Edition 2017 i SPECTRUM BOOKS (P) LTD. A1 291, First Floor, Janakpuri, New Delhi 110 058 t.me/Ebooks_Encyclopedia27. t.me/Magazines4all © 2017 Reserved by SPECTRUM BOOKS PVT. LTD. No part of this publication may be reproduced in any form or by any means without prior permission of the publishers. ISBN 81-7930-654-2 First published in 1995 by Spectrum India 23rd Edition 2017 Spectrum India and Spectrum Price: ` 365 Books (P) Ltd. have obtained the information contained in this book from sources considered Production Coordinator to be reliable. However, Spectrum India/Spectrum Books K.K. Padmanabhan (P) Ltd. or the authors do not undertake to guarantee the Assistance in Production accuracy or completeness of the V.R. Krishnadas information, and, as such, are not responsible for any error, omission or damage arising from Lasertypesetting/Graphics the use of the information. The Shiv Shankar Gupta authors and publishers are supplying information, but are Cover Design not offering professional Gyana Geetha services. Published and Distributed by SPECTRUM BOOKS (P) LTD. A1 291, First Floor, Janakpuri, New Delhi 110 058 Phone: 25507922, 25623501 Telefax: 91-11-25611640 e-mail: [email protected] Visit our websites: www.spectrumbooks.in, www.spectrumbooksonline.in All disputes will be subject to Delhi jurisdiction. Printed at: Ajanta Printers New Delhi-110 018 t.me/Ebooks_Encyclopedia27. t.me/Magazines4all Editor’s Note Several books have been written by justly famous authors and historians of India’s struggle for freedom which is the major strand in any consideration of the history of Modern India. But these volumes are extensive and in-depth studies, and often suffer from an overemphasis on one aspect at the cost of another. The present small effort, however, brings together various aspects of the turbulent period (from the arrival of the Europeans on Indian soil and the establishment of British rule in India to the day India won independence and the early years of freedom) in a systematic and succinct manner: major and important details and milestones are effectively discussed while several relevant but little known details are also highlighted. It is not just the mainstream freedom struggle that has been considered; the disparate efforts—small but significant— of several groups have also been discussed. The political and socio-economic developments that have influenced the growth of modern India have been dealt with in independent chapters. The endeavour has been to present complex and truly vast material in a brief and easy-to-understand manner, and we hope our readers find the book of use and interest. The present revised edition includes chapters on the (iii) t.me/Ebooks_Encyclopedia27. t.me/Magazines4all Editor’s Note advent of the Europeans in India and the British consolidation of power in India besides incorporating additional information under several chapters. There are also chapters on the challenges that a newly independent nation faced in the wake of a brutal partition. The Nehruvian era is also briefly discussed. A survey of personalities associated with various movements, peasant and tribal movements, tables and charts are also given for quick reference. Suggestions for improvement are welcome. Kalpana Rajaram (iv) t.me/Ebooks_Encyclopedia27. t.me/Magazines4all Contents Unit I SOURCES AND APPROACHES 1 Chapter 1 Sources for the History of Modern India 3 Archival Materials 4 Central Government Archives 4 Archives of the State Governments 5 Archives of Three Presidencies 6 Archives of Other European Powers 6 Judicial Records 7 Published Archives 7 Private Archives 8 Foreign Repositories 8 Biographies, Memoirs and Travel Accounts 9 Newspapers and Journals 10 Oral Evidence 11 Creative Literature 11 Painting 12 Summary 14 Chapter 2 Major Approaches to the History of Modern India15 Colonial Approach/Historiography 16 Nationalist Historiography/Approach 16 (v) t.me/Ebooks_Encyclopedia27. t.me/Magazines4all Contents Marxist Historiography/Approach 17 Subaltern Approach/Historiography 18 Communalist Approach 19 Cambridge School 20 Liberal and Neo-Liberal Interpretations 20 Feminist Historiography 20 Summary 21 Unit II ADVENT OF EUROPEANS AND 23 CONSOLIDATION OF BRITISH POWER IN INDIA Chapter 3 Advent of the Europeans in India 25 The Portuguese in India 25 The Quest for and Discovery of a 25 Sea Route to India From Trading to Ruling 27 Portuguese State 31 Portuguese Lose Favour with the Mughals 34 Decline of the Portuguese 36 Significance of the Portuguese 37 The Dutch 39 Dutch Settlements 39 Anglo-Dutch Rivalry 40 Decline of the Dutch in India 41 The English 41 Charter of Queen Elizabeth I 41 Progress of the English Company 42 The French 46 Foundation of French Centres in India 46 The Anglo-French Struggle for Supremacy: the 48 Carnatic Wars Causes for the English Success and the 55 French Failure (vi) t.me/Ebooks_Encyclopedia27. t.me/Magazines4all Contents The Danes 58 Why the English Succeeded against 58 Other European Powers Structure and Nature of the Trading Companies 58 Naval Superiority 59 Industrial Revolution 59 Military Skill and Discipline 59 Stable Government 59 Lesser Zeal for Religion 60 Use of Debt Market 60 Summary 61 Boxes Portuguese Rise and Fall 37 Formative Years of the East India Company 45 Rise and Fall of Dupleix in India 51 About the Goods in Trade Initially 56 Chapter 4 India on the Eve of British Conquest 64 Challenges before the Mughals 64 External Challenges 64 Weak Rulers after Aurangzeb—An 67 Internal Challenge Causes of Decline of Mughal Empire 69 Shifting Allegiance of Zamindars 70 Jagirdari Crisis 70 Rise of Regional Aspirations 73 Economic and Administrative Problems 74 Rise of Regional States 75 Survey of Regional Kingdoms 75 Nature and Limitations of Regional States 79 Socio-Economic Conditions 80 Agriculture 80 Trade and Industry 80 Status of Education 82 Societal Set-up 83 (vii) t.me/Ebooks_Encyclopedia27. t.me/Magazines4all Contents Development in Art, Architecture and Culture 85 Summary 86 Boxes Why Many Empire-shaking Battles at Panipat? 66 Causes of the Mughals’ Downfall in a Nutshell 74 Chapter 5 Expansion and Consolidation of British 88 Power in India The British Imperial History 88 Was the British Conquest Accidental or Intentional? 88 When did the British Period Begin in India? 90 Causes of British Success in India 91 Superior Arms, Military and Strategy 91 Better Military Discipline and Regular Salary 92 Civil Discipline and Fair Selection System 92 Brilliant Leadership and Support of Second 92 Line Leaders Strong Financial Backup 93 Nationalist Pride 93 British Conquest of Bengal 93 Bengal on the Eve of British Conquest 93 Alivardi Khan and the English 94 Challenges Before Siraj-ud-daula 95 The Battle of Plassey 95 Mir Kasim and the Treaty of 1760 97 The Battle of Buxar 98 The Treaty of Allahabad 100 Dual Government in Bengal (1765-72) 101 Mysore’s Resistance to the Company 102 The Wodeyar/Mysore Dynasty 102 Rise of Haidar Ali 102 First Anglo-Mysore War (1767-69) 103 Second Anglo-Mysore War (1780-84) 104 Third Anglo-Mysore War 105 (viii) t.me/Ebooks_Encyclopedia27. t.me/Magazines4all Contents Fourth Anglo-Mysore War 106 Mysore After Tipu 109 Anglo-Maratha Struggle for Supremacy 109 Rise of the Marathas 109 Entry of the English into Maratha Politics 110 First Anglo-Maratha War (1775-82) 110 Second Anglo Maratha War (1803-1805) 113 Third Anglo-Maratha War (1817-19) 114 Why the Marathas Lost 116 Conquest of Sindh 118 Rise of Talpuras Amirs 118 Gradual Ascendancy over Sindh 119 Criticisms of the Conquest of Sindh 122 Conquest of Punjab 123 Consolidation of Punjab under the Sikhs 123 Ranjit Singh and the English 124 Punjab After Ranjit Singh 125 First Anglo-Sikh War (1845-46) 126 Second Anglo-Sikh War (1848-49) 128 Significance of the Anglo-Sikh Wars 129 Extension of British Paramountcy Through 129 Administrative Policy The Policy of Ring-Fence 130 Subsidiary Alliance 130 Doctrine of Lapse 134 Relations of British India with Neighbouring 135 Countries Anglo-Bhutanese Relations 136 Anglo-Nepalese Relations 136 Anglo-Burmese Relations 137 Anglo-Tibetan Relations 138 Anglo-Afghan Relations 139 John Lawrence and the Policy of 141 Masterly Inactivity Lytton and the Policy of Proud Reserve 142 British India and the North-West Frontier 143 Summary 144 (ix) t.me/Ebooks_Encyclopedia27. t.me/Magazines4all Contents Boxes Robert Clive 99 Estimate of Tipu Sultan 107 Annexation of Awadh 135 Unit III RISING RESENTMENT AGAINST 147 COMPANY RULE Chapter 6 People’s Resistance Against British Before 1857 149 People’s Resistance: Meaning 149 Genesis of People’s Resistance 150 Causative Factors for People’s Uprisings 150 Civil Uprisings 151 Major Causes of Civil Uprisings 151 General Characteristics of Civil Uprisings 152 Important Civil Uprisings 152 Peasant Movements with Religious Overtones 166 Tribal Revolts 168 Different Causes for Mainland and 168 North-Eastern Tribal Revolts Characteristics of Tribal Revolts 169 Important Tribal Movements of Mainland 170 Tribal Movements of the North-East 176 Sepoy Mutinies 177 Causes 177 Important Mutinies 178 Weaknesses of People’s Uprisings 179 Summary 179 Boxes Tribal Movements: Period, Region, Causes at a Glance 174 North-East Frontier Tribal Movements: Year, 176 Region, Major Causes Chapter 7 The Revolt of 1857 183 Simmering Discontent 183 (x)