9th European Symposium on Life Sciences Research in Space : 26th Annual International Gravitational Physiology Meeting

428 Pages·2005·7.654 MB·English

by  Barbara Warmbein, European Space Agency., International Society for Gravitational Physiology

Urban Development Series
Green Cities
Edited by Michael Lindfield and Florian Steinberg
November 2012
© 2012 Asian Development Bank
All rights reserved. Published in 2012.
Printed in the Philippines
ISBN 978-92-9092-896-6 (Print), 978-92-9092-897-3 (PDF)
Publication Stock No. BKK125129
Cataloging-In-Publication Data
Lindfield, Michael and Florian Steinberg.
Green cities.
Mandaluyong City, Philippines: Asian Development Bank, 2012.
1. Green cities. 2. Environmental management. 3. Asia. I. Asian Development Bank.
The views expressed in this publication are those of the authors and do not necessarily
reflect the views and policies of the Asian Development Bank (ADB) or its Board of Governors
or the governments they represent.
ADB does not guarantee the accuracy of the data included in this publication and accepts no
responsibility for any consequence of their use.
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urbanized area within Hong Kong, China and Taipei,China respectively.
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Printed on recycled paper
Contents
Preface v
Foreword viii
Abbreviations x
Contributors xii
Acknowledgment xiv
Introduction
by Michael Lindfield and Florian Steinberg 1
1 Spatial Development and Technologies for Green Cities
by Florian Steinberg and Michael Lindfield 23
2 Urban Metabolism and the Zero-Waste City:
Transforming Cities through Sustainable Design
and Behavior Change
by Steffen Lehmann 108
3 Energy Strategy for Green Cities
by Thomas Hurst, Debra Lam, and Malcolm Ball 136
4 Transport for Green Cities
by Lloyd Wright 175
5 Green Cities: A Water-Secure Future
by Alan Baird and Theresa Audrey O. Esteban 218
6 Green City Solid Waste Management
by Reynar R. Rollan 262
7 Financing Sustainable Cities
by Michael Lindfield, Vergel Latay, and Vince Michael Docta 296
8 Smart Concepts for Greener Cities
by Alexandra Vogl 373
Conclusion: Green Cities Will Become a Reality
by Michael Lindfield and Florian Steinberg 406
iii

Preface
Asia’s Green City Challenge
Asia’s cities have been the drivers of the economy and have lifted millions
out of poverty. However, the environmental consequences of this rapid
development are apparent, and the citizens of Asia’s urban areas are
increasingly insistent that something should be done. And there is an
investment deficit in Asian cities’ infrastructure spending, mostly in
environmental infrastructure, of some $100 billion per annum.
Asian cities can be more environmentally friendly. The resources are
there to achieve this. Up to 80% of gross domestic product today comes
from urban areas in Asia, and its megacities are nation-sized in population
and economic product. New cities, such as the innovative “eco-towns” in
Japan and “eco-cities” in the People’s Republic of China (PRC), have begun
to put into action a sustainable urban development model.
Existing cities need to change as they grow. In particular, to maximize
livability and minimize energy use and environmental impact, Asian cities need
to align the planning and provision of quality, high-capacity public transport
with the provision of well-serviced high density, mixed-use development.
The bus rapid transit system in Guangzhou, People’s Republic of China, for
example, is integrated with the city’s metro system and other nonmotorized
means of transport. It is also integrated with the planning and zoning of
surrounding areas to foster a dense, pedestrian-friendly environment which
allows easy access to services and employment.
The challenge throughout the region is to provide the green infrastructure
needed to maintain growth while cleaning up the environment. Anyone who
has been in traffic jams in Bangkok, Beijing, Jakarta, Manila, or Mumbai will
know that a new approach is needed.
Asian cities and their hinterlands also have potentially severe global
environmental consequences. This can be seen in the ecological footprints of
Asian cities. Although controversial as an absolute measure, city ecological
footprints provide a relative measure of cities’ resource use intensity and
help us understand their impact. A sustainable footprint is about 1.8 hectares
v
vi Preface
per person. Today, the average in rural PRC is 1.6 hectares. In Shanghai, it is
7 hectares. The footprint of a typical city in the United States is 9.7 hectares.
The consequence for the environment as the PRC urbanizes and becomes
wealthier is obvious. The constraints of inter-sector and interjurisdictional
coordination, exacerbated by far-reaching decentralization which has
occurred across the region and which has seen capacity-strapped cities and
surrounding rural local governments saddled with “unfunded mandates”,
mean that even “wealthy” cities find it difficult to respond to climate change
imperatives and invest in green infrastructure even if they want to.
To support its developing member countries in more sustainable urban
development, the Asian Development Bank (ADB), under its new Urban
Operational Plan, will analyze the urbanization process in the context of
a country’s economic development and identify the main environmental,
social, and economic development issues relating to the urban sector—as
well as how ADB can add value in the sector—and the proposed areas of
investment focus.
ADB will endeavor to develop longer-term engagements in focus urban
regions. This will provide the opportunity to develop an integrated plan based
on assessments of the environmental, social, and economic priorities for
these regions. The assessment process will identify the key environmental
issues of a city and prioritize investments to address them in an integrated
way across infrastructure sectors to achieve a Green City. ADB, together
with public and private partners, will be involved in investments in water
supply, waste water, solid waste, district heating/cooling, urban transport
(including roads), and energy efficiency.
To foster such investments, two things are needed. The first is to give
cities the capacity and incentive to plan, finance, and implement needed
infrastructure that provides the basis for innovation appropriate to the
competitive advantages of the city and its rural hinterland. The second is to
enable the private sector to participate effectively in this process, leveraging
government resources.
Asia’s cities are rapidly developing in sophistication and confidence.
Despite obvious shortfalls in service provision, there is a developing sense
that, with the right support, incentives, and freedoms, they may be able to
solve their problems and even contribute in a major way to solving global
problems such as greenhouse gas reduction and climate change mitigation.
vi
Preface vii
The challenge is to find ways to channel resources to effective change agents
in subsovereign governments. This would encourage innovative responses
and effective partnerships with both private sector and community groups.
At ADB, we accept this challenge under our new Urban Operational Plan.
This book is intended to provide examples of how this challenge may
be met.
Bindu N. Lohani
Vice-President
Knowledge Management and Sustainable Development
Asian Development Bank
vii
Foreword
We are pleased to publish this book on Green Cities that, in addition to
Inclusive Cities and Competitive Cities, will continue to form one of three
major themes of the work of the Asian Development Bank (ADB) in the
urban sector over the coming years. Publication of this book is particularly
timely in this year of the Rio+20 United Nations Conference on Sustainable
Environment, which represents a major commitment of the international
community to achieving sustainable cities.
The global challenge we face today is that of preventing catastrophic
climate change. This will require ensuring that global greenhouse gas
emissions peak by the year 2020. Reaching this goal will be necessary
to ensure that the increase in global temperature does not exceed 2°C
by the end of the 21st century. In addition to ongoing efforts to reduce
emissions, adaptation measures will be required to cope with the adverse
consequences of climate change that have been locked in by emissions of
previous decades. Developing Asia is now responsible for 35% of worldwide
energy–related carbon dioxide (CO ) emissions, compared to only 17% in
2
1990. In the absence of more widespread use of energy from renewable
sources as well as improved energy efficiency, this could reach 45%
by 2030.
Globally, cities account for about 70% of CO emissions, which
2
comprise a significant share of global greenhouse gas emissions, the bulk
of these being generated in the building and construction, urban transport,
and energy sectors. Ultimately, reducing CO emissions in urban areas will
2
require (i) lowering the rate at which buildings consume energy, both during
construction and operation and maintenance; (ii) encouraging use of low-
carbon forms of transport; and (iii) adopting low-carbon means of energy
production. However, achieving such goals will require investment on a
significant scale. In fact, several tens of billions of dollars will be required
annually to assist developing countries transition to low-carbon and climate-
resilient economies, with $40.0 billion being required annually for adaptation
in Asia and the Pacific alone. For its part, ADB has sponsored numerous
energy efficiency projects since 2002, with lending for energy efficiency
reaching $2.1 billion per year as of 2011.
One purpose of this book is to direct the green agenda toward compact,
multifunctional, and efficient urban areas. It thus focuses on “greening”
of a number of urban infrastructure services such as urban transport, and
provision of water and sanitation services, waste management, and energy
sources for urban areas.
viii
Foreword ix
We join the editors and authors of this book in the conviction that the
Asia and Pacific region is moving toward a green economy, and that the
future of cities is an important part of this shift. While a challenging process
that will require time, the foundation for Green Cities must be laid today.
S. Chander
Director General
Regional and Sustainable Development Department
Asian Development Bank