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Sustainable Agriculture
NATIONAL POLLUTION PREVENTION CEhTER FOR HIGHER EDUCATION
Selected Reading Material
Tkse key articles are provided here to savefaculty the time of locating them in
the library. All have been reprinted with permission. Selected by David Pimentel,
Ph.D., Professor of Insect Ecology 8 Agricultural Sciences, Department of
Entomology and Section of Ecology and Systematics, Cornell University.
David Pimentel, Gigi Berardi, and Sarah Fast.
"Energy Efficiency of Farming Systems:
Organic and Conventional Agriculture."
Agriculture, Ecosystems and Environment 9 (19 83): 358-372.
M. G. Paoletti, D. Pimentel, B. R. Stinner, and D. Stinner.
'Agroecosystem Biodiversity: Matching Production
and Conservation Biology."
Agriculture, Ecosystems and Environment 40 (19 92): 3-23.
D. Pimentel, G. Rodrigues, T. Wang, R. Abrams, K. Goldberg,
H. Staecker, E. Ma, L. Brueckner, L. Trovato, C. Chow,
U. Govindarajulu, and S. Boerke.
"Water Resources in Food and Energy Production."
BioScience 32, no. 11 (December 1982): 861-867.
D. Pimentel, M. S. Hunter, J. A. LaGro, R. A. Efroymson,
J. C. Landers, F. T. Mewis, C. A. McCarthy, and A. E. Boyd.
'Benefits and Risks of Genetic Engineering and Agriculture."
BioScience 39, no. 9 (October 1989): 606-61 4.
David Pimentel, Lori McLaughlin, Andrew Zepp, Benyamin Lakitan,
Tamara Kraus, Peter Kleinman, Fabius Vancini, W. John Roach,
Ellen Graap, William S. Keeton, and Gabe Selig.
"Environmental and Economic Effects of Reducing Pesticide Use."
BioScience 41, no. 6 (June 1991): 402409.
D. Pimentel, H. Acquay, M. Biltonen, P. Rice, M. Silva, J. Nelson,
V. Lipner, S. Giordano, A. Horowitz, and M. D'Amore.
'Environmental and Economic Costs of Pesticide Use."
BioScience 42, no. 10 (November 1992): 75s760.
David Pimentel, Sarah Fast, Wei Liang Chao, Ellen Stuart,
Joanne Dintzis, Gail Einbender, William Schlappi,
David Andow, ahd Kathryn Broderick.
"Renewable Energy: Economic and Environmental Issues."
BioScience 44, no. 8 (September 1994): 536-547.
David Pimentel.
"Environmental and Economic Benefits of Sustainable Agriculture."
In Socio-economic and Policy Issues for Sustainable Farming
Systems, 5-20. Padova, Italy: Cooperativa Amicizia, 1993.
National Pollution Prevention Center for Higher Education University of Michigan Selected Readings 1
Dana Building, 430 East University. Ann Arbor MI 48109-1 115 October 1997
Phone: [phone] Fax: [phone] E-mail: [email protected]
Anricrrlture, Bcocrytternr and Enviror~rnent.9 (1983) 369-372
Eleevier Rcience Publirhen B.V., Amsterdam --Printed in The Netherlands
ENERGY EFFICIENCY OF FARMING SYSTEMS: ORGANIC AND
CONVENTIONAL AGRICULTURE
DAVID PIMENTEL, GIG1 BERARDI* and SARAH FAST
Department of Entomology and Section of Ecoloj~yo nd Syrternaticcr, New York State
College of Agriculture and Life Sciencer, Cornell Clniuerrrily. Ithoca, NY 14863 (V.S.A.)
(Accepted 31 January 1988)
ABSTRACT
Pimentel, D., Berardi, a. and Faat, S., 19R3. Energy efficiency of farming systems: or-
ganic and conventional agriculture. Agric. Ecoryeterne Environ., 9: 369-372.
An asleesment war made of the energy efficiency, yield performance, and labor re-
quirements for the production of corn, wheat, potatoes, and apples using organic (with-
out aynthetic chemical fertilizerr and pesticides) and conventional farming technologiee.
Organic corn and wheat production w u2 9-70% more energy efficient than conventional
productlon. However, convsntional potato and apple production wae 7-93% more
energy efficient than organic production. For all four crops, the labor input per unit of
yield was hllher for organic eyetemlr compnred with conventional production.
INTRODUCTION
Since the mid 1930'8, agricultural productivity measured in crop yield per
acre has more than doubled (USDA, 1980). The United States now domi-
natee the world's grain exports and in the fiscal year 1981, U.S. agricuItura1
exports are projected to reach a record $45 billion. This high level of produc-
tivity has been due largely to the mobilization of energy resources in agricul-
tural production combined with the use of high-yielding crop varieties and in
part to timeliness of operations and other cultural practices (Jensen, 1978).
The. large fossil energy subsidies needed to maintain the U.S. agricultural
eystem have been the subject of much research (Pimentel, 1980). The grow-
ing interest over the magnitude of the energy inputs is shared not only by
researcher6 but duo by individual farmers who are trying to minimize energy
inputs and thus production costs (Ber~rdi,1 976; Wernick and Lockeretz,
1977), and by consumers who may ultimately pay higher food prices (Stein-
hart and Steinhart, 1974; Leach, 1976).
The amount of energy expended for food production, distribution, and
preparation in the United States ropresenLq about 17% of total U.S. energy;
-
*Prerent addraw: Univereity of Maryland, Baltimore County, Cntonsville. MD 21228,
U.S.A.
0167-88091831S03.00 0 19R3 Eleevier Science Publinhers H.V.
Reprinted with permission of the n ~ i h l i s h e r
npproldmately one-third (6%)o f this is used for food production (Pimentel organic N. During the first growing season 80% of the ammonia is available
\
and Pimentel, 1979). The major fossil energy inputs to the agricultural sys- the crop and 40% of the organic N is mineralized and available (R.E.
tem tire fuel used for machinery operations and synthetic fertilizers Muck, personal communication, 1982). If manure is applied each year, then
(Pirnentel, 1980). Methods of reducing fuel use on the farm have been the earlier applications continue to be mineralized until an equilibrium i~
subject of rnuch invesligation. There are many opportunities for reducing reached. At this time the amount of N mineralized and potentially available
energy inputs in crop production (Pimentel et al., 1973; Berardi, 1978; to the crop is about 76% of the annual application. Of course, a small per-
Pimental, 1980; Lockeretz et al., 1981). Reduction in the use of synthetic centage of commercial N is also lost and not available to the crop.
fertilizers, for example, could result in eignificant energy savings In agricul- The eludge is calculated to contain 3.0 kg of N, 1.1 kg of P, and 0.8 kg of
ture. The production of fertilizers, primarily nitrogenous, requiree nearly K per wet tonne (Metcalf and Eddy, 1972). The availability of N from sludge
30% of the total energy expended in U.S. crop production (Pimentel, 1980). ie assumed to be similar to that for livestock manure (Magdoff and Amadon,
Given the high energy requirement, monetary cost, and environmental 1980).
cost of synthetic fertilizers, as well as pesticidee, research efforts are focused In those cases where P is needed in addition to the organic waste material,
on the optimal use of fertilizers and pesticides and on seeking alternative rock phosphate is used. The effectiveness of rock phosphate depends on soil
technologies. Organic agriculture is frequently suggested as one alternative II pH and the concentration of P and Ca in the soil solution (USDA, 1980).
technology. 'i'llis study is an assessment of the energy efficiency, yield per- II Although rock phosphate release8 P more slowly than acid-treated phos-
formance, and lnbor requirements of organic agricultural technologies com- phate, it was assumed that the material had been used for several years and
pared with conventional agricultural production. Comparisons are made for an adequate equilibrium had been established (I.ockeretz, 1980; USDA,
four crops: corn, wheat, potatoes, and apples. , 1980). Therefore, nutrient availability was not a problem (IJSDA, 1980).
l -'
The calcutated energy input for rock phosphate was 1300 kcal kg
GENERAL METHODS (Lockeretz, 1980). Similarly, additional K was supplied by low-solubility
sources of K such as glauconite (green sand) (USDA, 1980). The energy in-
In this study organic farming is defined as a production system that avoids put for glauconite WRS 2200 kcal kg-' (Berardi, 1976). In all cases, we as-
or excludes the use of synthetic chemical fertilizers, pesticides, and growth sumed that the organic approaches of supplying nutrients were adequate for
regulators (USDA, 1980). The essential crop nutrients of nitrogen, (N), phos- crop needs.
phorus (P), and potassium (K), are provided by crop residues, livestock For pest control, non-chemical control alternatives were limited primarily
manure, legumes used as a nitrogen source (e.g., soybeans and sweet clover), to weed control for the four crops used in the analysis. The substitute tech-
and off-fann organic wastes such ae sewage sludge and other soil amend- nology for herbicidal weed control was additional mechanical cultivation.
ments (glauconite (10, rock phoephate (P)). Both organic and conventional For insect control, the only readily available alternative nonchemical con-
farmers employ a range of farming techniques, including choices in crops, trols were crop rotationfi for the control of the corn rootworm complex and
types of tillage, crop diversity, and preseuce or absence of livestock (Oelhaf, host plant resistance and planting time for the control of the Hessian fly of
1978; USDA, 1.980). wheat (Pimentel et al., 1982). However, for most insect pests in this study,
For the organic systems that required manure and sewage sludge in this we aasumed that there were no effective non-chemical controls at present.
study, it was assumed that these nutrient sources were reasonably close to Also, for all plant pathogens, we assumed there were no nonchemical con-
the cropping area. Clearly, manure and sewage sludge with about 86% water trols available for the four crops. Of the four crops selected for this analysis
could not be efficiently transported by tractor or truck more than 10-30 two crops, corn and wheat, can be produced with minimal pest losses where-
km. For this example, we assume a 3 km distance for the livestock manure as both potatoes and apples suffer severe losses from insects and plant patho-
eource and 16 km for the sewage sludge. We aleo assume that the manure is gens if pesticides are not employed (Pimentel et al., 1978). Crop locationfi
transported ar~dsp read by tractor with an input of 16 000 kcal (ca. 0.6 gallon were chosen to represent typical crop producing regions.
of fuel) per tonne of manure (Linton, 1968), and that the sewage sludge is No attempt was made in this study to substitute different types of tillage
transported and spread by a truck with am input of 15 000 kcal t-'. This ef- for moldboard plow or machinery for basic field operations for either organ-
ficiency is based on the assumption that the t.ruck can be driven on the crop- ic or conventional agriclilturd practices. Energy and labor costs of plowing
land. down previous crops in the organic rotation were considered part of both
The cattle manure is calculated to contain 6.6 kg of N, 1.6 kg of P, and organic and conventional tillage operations unless the crop was grown only
3 kg of K per wet tonne (Pimentel et al., 1973). Concerning the availability as a green manure for brganic production. Labor requirements also remained
of N from fresh manure, about half is in the form of ammonia and half as I the same for basic tillage and hm-vesting operations for both conventional

New Eaem inputs and outputs per for conventiorul and organic potato pfoduetion in York (Schreincr and Nafru, becum 1980) C0nvcn:ionrl Organic (livestock manure) [sewage sludge) (following one year or dover !Illow) meet ha-' Itern ha-' keal Quantity kcal Quantity ha" kd Quantity ha-' kcd ha" Quantity ha-' ha" hr" - - - - 56 bbar (h) 47.5 35 45 Machinery (kg) 14 252 000 14 252 000 14 252 000 14 252 000 Caroline (I) 261 2 638 449 261 2 638 449 261 2 638 449 261 2 638 449 Dievl (I) 152 1734928 152 1334 928 152 1 i34 928 152 1734 928 . Elutriaty (kwh) 45.7 130 839 45.7 130 839 45.7 130 839 45.7 130 339 Nitrogen P (kg) 229 748 000 40 82e 612 300 76 OOOd 1 140 000 229. 1 365 000 Phorpbom (kg) 390 1 170000 327b 425 100 306' 397 800 375h 487 500 Potassium (kg) 222 355 200 100- 220 100 i61' 354 200 190' 418 OW 1 309 347 2 134 (49 2 *d 2 I34 1309347 2134 1309347 134 1 309 347 Insecticides (kg) 31.4 2 678 420 0 0 0 0 0 0 Herbicides (kg) 18.0 1 798 380 0 0 0 0 0 0 " (kg) Fuqicides 390 000 0 0 0 0 0 6 0 control (diesel) (I) 465 000 50 Wed 0 0 50 465 000 50 465 000 Traasprtat~on (kg) 2 473 635 561 2 473 635561 2473 635 561 .2473 635 561 9 436 624 Total 9 058 124 8 15 841 124 423 624 (kg) Potato yield 33 000 20 262000 16 500 10 131 000 16500 10 131000 16500 10 131 000 kd output/kcal input 1.28 1.20 1:12 1.07 h-') outputlhbor hour (kg Q 943 367 295 347 500 tonnes of cattle manure applied with an eneqy input kul and a lnbor input of h for spreading. wet of 15 000 5 '40.8 !" P kg of supplied by livestock manure and mmninin~ kg supplied by mk phosphate kg-'). b63 327 (1300.kul K kg kg of supplied by livestock manure and remaining supplied by glauconite kcal kg-'). '122 100 (2200 an wet tonnn of sewage sludge applied with energy input of kd t-' and a labor input of b for hauling and spreading. '76 15 000 16 ud P of supplied by sludge remaining kgrupplied by rock phaphatc kal kg-'). '84 kg 306 (1300 kg of supplied by sludge and remaining kg supplied by glauron~tc kcal kg-'). K '61 161 (2200 kcal 'about and h of labor required plow plant, mow. and plow-under rhe sweet dom ctop that will provide an to 1 200 000 168 6 an kg of Eleven tonnes (wet) of uttle manure was applied with input of kcal t" to add an additional kg of N. N. energy 15 000 61 To apred the manure h of bbor were needed. 1.5 blj Lg P kg of supplied by livestock manure and remaining supplied by rock phosphate kcal kg.'). 375 (1300 kg of provided from manure and rrmainiw kg supplitd by glruconite kcsl kg-'). K L32 190 (2200
IV TABLE for Energy in the 1980) inputs and outputs per hectare conventional and organic apple production Northeast (Fuat. livestock manurc clover planting red ha" ha" Quantity ha-' kal Quantity kcd ha-' Quantity ha-' kcd hp-' - - - - - 188 176 180 (h) Labor 82 898 100 82 898 100 82 898 100 Machinery (kg) 1 101 11 130 009 1 101 11 130 009 1 101 11 i30 089 Gasolinr (1) 4 39 5010 746 439 5010i46 439 5 010 746 Diesel (I) , 20 57 260 20 57 260 20 57 260 Electricity (kwh) 8 1 205 400 14 700' 220 500 168~ 1 500 000 Nitrogen (kg) 2 114 627 OCO 9zb 119600 114- 148 200 Phosphorus (kg) 114 231 408 70' 151 000 114' 250 800 Potassium (kg) 682 1437656 682 1437 656 682 437 656 1 (kg) Lime 47 889 090 0 0 0 0 Insecticide (kg) 2 49 360 730 0 0 0 0 1 Fungicide (kg) (kg) 6 599 460 0 0 0 0 Herbicide 0 0 30 342 420 0 0 Weed control (diesel) (I) 2 716 698 012 2716 698 012 2716 698 012 Trarsporurion (kg) - - - h) (450 250 14250 14 250 sq. 14 Suildimg 26 159 121 20 082 553 21 145 115 Tocal 41 546 23 265 760 2 077 163 300 2077 163 300 1 Apple yield (kg) ! 0.89 0.06 0.06 kal output1 kcal input kg 236 12 11 output/hbor hour (kg h*') '14.7 15 000 1.5 r'' wet tonnts of cattle manure applied with energy input of kcal and a labor input of h for manure an spreading. P b22 92 (1300 kcal kg of supplied by livesrock manure and mmaining kg supplied by rock phosphate kg-'). K '44 70 (2200 kg-'). kg of supplied by livestock manure and remaining kg supplied by glauconite kcal kd 1 500 12 'about and h of additional labor are required to plant the red clover crop in the orchard that will 000 N 168 to prande kg of the apple trees. 14 1300 '1 kg of rock phosphate at kcal kg-'. . k# '114 3200 of glauconite at kd kg-'
energy production ratio is only 0.06, or 95% poorer than conventional apple conventional production, and Orlhaf (1978) calculated ahout a 20% greater
production and the yield per labor how is only 11 kg. Hence, for both food labor input for organic: crops. All of thest? studies used different methods of
energy yield and lalmr productivity, the organic system is about 95% poorer assessing labor inputs, and therefore are not fdly co~npuable.t ~istorically,
than conventional apple production (Table IV). If 'cosmetic standards' lower American fanners have su11stil;utcd capilal for labor and this trend is contin-
thnn cur'renl; wliolesale/retail standards were acceptable for apples grows or- uing (Butte1 and Gertler, 1982).
ganically, then higher apple yields and improved energy input/output ratios Another confitraint is the availability of adequate quantities of organic
would be possible. fertilizer like manure (USDA, 1980). For example, only about half of the
farms now in Iowa keep cattle that would provide a source of manure
SUMMARY (USRC. 1981). This reflects the growing tendency for specialization in US.
agriculture (Fast and Gertler, 1981).
A comparison was made of the fossil energy, labor, and extra land inputs A major limitation of this study rests on the use of energy, crop yield,
for the production of corn. wheat, potatoes, and apples employing organic and labor data from unrelated studies. Clearly, sound field studies of both
technologies (without synthetic chemical fertilizers and pesticides) and con- organic and conventional agricultural technologies are needed for corn,
ventional agricultural technologies. Nutrients in the organic system were eup- wheat, potatoes, apples, and other major crops.
plied by either livestock manure, sewage sludge, legumes, rock phosphate, or
glauconite. Ilerbicides were replaced by mechanical cultivation md mowing.
Except for the me of cri~pr otations in corn, and host plant resistance in REFERENCES
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In conlmst, pot.atoes and apples were less energy efficient (10-904) to
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~griml:ureE, cosystems and Environment, 40 ( 1992) 3-23
Elsevier Science Publishers B.V.. Amsterdam
Agroecosystem biodiversity: matching production
and conservation biology
M.G.P aoletti", D. Pimentelb, 8.R. Stinner' and D. Stinner'
'Department of Biology, Padova University, Via Trieste 75. 35 190 Padova, Italy
bDepartmento fEntomology. Cornell University, Ithaca. XY, USA
'Department of Entomology, Ohio Stare University, Wooster,O H, USA
Paoletti, M.G., Pimentel. D., Stinner, B.R. and Stinner, D., 1992. Agroecosystem biodiversity: match-
ing production and conservation biology. Agric. Ecosystems Environ.. 40: 3-23.
A review of the existing literature on biodiversity connected with agricultural activities has been
developed, and the possible sustainable alternatives have been looked into.
Following recent evaluations. only one-twentieth to one-sixtieth of ihe planet's species have yet
been described and most of these will be lost if the destruction of the environment continues at its
present rate. Most of the terrestrial environment (up to 95%) is affected by human activities includ-
ing agriculture and the terrestrial habitats provide up to 98% ofhuman food on the planet. Sustainable
strategies in food production in agriculture improve the existing biodiversity and include the follow-
ing items: increased porosity of the landscape through proper management of natural vegetation, bet-
ter use and recycling of organic residues, introduction of integrated fanning systems, reduced tiltage,
rotation. biological control, increased number of biota involved in human food-webs.
INTRODUCTION
Why are we concerned about the biotic diversity in space, in time in the
anthropized cultivated areas? Is the sufficient production of foods, fiber and
meat reasonably consistent with the conservation of biodiversity? Biodivers-
ity is associated with terrestrial areas in which diversity of natural biota play
the same social and economic roles as do "libraries, universities, museums,
symphony halls, and newspapers. They must be integrated with the educa-
tional system in the same way as these other complex information storage and
transfer systems" (Janzen, 1 988 ). Most demographic, social, economic and
environmental problems occur in tropical areas and it is difficult to convince
the public aboutthe 'library excellence' of natural biota when they are with-
Correspndence to: M.G. Paoletti, Department of Biology, Padova University, Via Trieste 75,
35 100 Padova, Italy
% 1992 Elsevier Science Publishers B.V. .U1 rights reserved 0167-8809/92/$05.00
Reprinted with permission of the publisher.