3D Laser Microfabrication: Principles and Applications

369 Pages·2006·6.615 MB·English

by  Sami Franssila

3DLaserMicrofabrication
Editedby
HiroakiMisawaand
SauliusJuodkazis
3DLaserMicrofabrication.PrinciplesandApplications.
EditedbyH.MisawaandS.Juodkazis
Copyright(cid:1)2006WILEY-VCHVerlagGmbH&Co.KGaA,Weinheim
ISBN:3-527-31055-X
Related Titles
Bordo,V.G.,Rubahn,H.-G.
Optics and Spectroscopy at Surfaces and Interfaces
281pageswith144figures
2005
Softcover
ISBN3-527-40560-7
B(cid:1)umer,S.(ed.)
Handbook of Plastic Optics
199pageswith135figuresand37tables
2005
Hardcover
ISBN3-527-40424-4
Franssila,S.
Introduction to Microfabrication
408pages
2004
Hardcover
ISBN0-470-85105-8
Sinzinger,S.,Jahns,J.
Microoptics
447pageswith209figuresand12tables
2003
Hardcover
ISBN3-527-40355-8
Schleich,W.P.
QuantumOptics in Phase Space
716pageswith220figures
2001
Hardcover
ISBN3-527-29435-X
3D Laser Microfabrication
Principles and Applications
Edited by
Hiroaki Misawa and Saulius Juodkazis
Editors & AllbookspublishedbyWiley-VCHare
carefullyproduced.Nevertheless,authors,
HiroakiMisawa editors,andpublisherdonotwarrantthe
ResearchInstituteforElectronicScience informationcontainedinthesebooks,
HokkaidoUniversity,Japan includingthisbook,tobefreeoferrors.
[email protected] Readersareadvisedtokeepinmindthat
statements,data,illustrations,procedural
detailsorotheritemsmayinadvertently
SauliusJuodkazis beinaccurate.
ResearchInstituteforElectronicScience
LibraryofCongressCardNo.:appliedfor
HokkaidoUniversity,Japan
[email protected]
BritishLibraryCataloguing-in-PublicationData
Acataloguerecordforthisbookisavailable
fromtheBritishLibrary.
Cover
Bibliographicinformationpublishedby
Periodicstructureofabody-centeredcubiclattice DieDeutscheBibliothek
numericallysimulatedbyinterferenceoffourplane DieDeutscheBibliothekliststhispublication
waves. intheDeutscheNationalbibliografie;detailed
bibliographicdataisavailableintheInternetat
<http://dnb.ddb.de>.
(cid:1)2006WILEY-VCHVerlagGmbH&Co.KGaA,
Weinheim
Allrightsreserved(includingthoseof
translationintootherlanguages).
Nopartofthisbookmaybereproduced
inanyform–nortransmittedortranslated
intomachinelanguagewithoutwritten
permissionfromthepublishers.Registered
names,trademarks,etc.usedinthisbook,
evenwhennotspecificallymarkedassuch,
arenottobeconsideredunprotectedbylaw.
Typesetting K(cid:2)hn&Weyh,SatzundMedien,
Freiburg
Printing StraussGmbH,M(cid:3)rlenbach
Bookbinding Litges&DopfBuchbindereiGmbH,
Heppenheim
PrintedintheFederalRepublicofGermany.
Printedonacid-freepaper.
ISBN-13: 978-3-527-31055-5
ISBN-10: 3-527-31055-X
V
Contents
ListofContributors XIII
1 Introduction 1
HiroakiMisawaandSauliusJuodkazis
2 Laser–MatterInteractionConfinedInsidetheBulkofaTransparentSolid 5
EugeneGamaly,BarryLuther-DaviesandAndreiRode
2.1 Introduction 5
2.2 Laser–matterInteractions:BasicProcessesandGoverning
Equations 7
2.2.1 LaserIntensityDistributioninaFocalDomain 7
2.2.2 AbsorbedEnergyDensityRate 8
2.2.3 Electron–phonon(ions)EnergyExchange,HeatConductionand
Hydrodynamics:Two-temperatureApproximation 9
2.2.4 TemperatureintheAbsorptionRegion 11
2.2.5 AbsorptionMechanisms 12
2.2.6 ThresholdfortheChangeinOpticalandMaterialProperties
(“OpticalDamage”) 13
2.3 NondestructiveInteraction:Laser-inducedPhaseTransitions 13
2.3.1 Electron–PhononEnergyExchangeRate 14
2.3.2 PhaseTransitionCriteriaandTime 14
2.3.3 FormationofDiffractiveStructuresinDifferentMaterials 15
2.3.3.1 ModificationsInducedbyLightinNoncrystallineChalcogenide
Glass 15
2.3.3.2 Two-photonExcitationofFluorescence 16
2.3.3.3 Photopolymerization 17
2.3.3.4 PhotorefractiveEffect 17
2.4 Laser–SolidInteractionatHighIntensity 18
2.4.1 LimitationsImposedbytheLaserBeamSelf-focusing 18
2.4.2 OpticalBreakdown:IonizationMechanismsandThresholds 19
2.4.2.1 IonizationbyElectronImpact(AvalancheIonization) 19
2.4.2.2 MultiphotonIonization 21
3DLaserMicrofabrication.PrinciplesandApplications.
EditedbyH.MisawaandS.Juodkazis
Copyright(cid:1)2006WILEY-VCHVerlagGmbH&Co.KGaA,Weinheim
ISBN:3-527-31055-X
VI Contents
2.4.3 TransientElectronandEnergyDensityinaFocalDomain 21
2.4.2.1 IonizationandDamageThresholds 22
2.4.3.2 AbsorptionCoefficientandAbsorptionDepthinPlasma 23
2.4.3.3 ElectronTemperatureandPressureinEnergyDepositionVolumeto
theEndoftheLaserPulse 23
2.4.4 Electron-to-ionEnergyTransfer:HeatConductionandShockWave
Formation 24
2.4.4.1 ElectronicHeatConduction 25
2.4.4.2 ShockWaveFormation 26
2.4.5 ShockWaveExpansionandStopping 27
2.4.6 ShockandRarefactionWaves:FormationofVoid 27
2.4.7 PropertiesofShock-and-heat-affectedSolidafterUnloading 28
2.5 Multiple-pulseInteraction:EnergyAccumulation 29
2.5.1 TheHeat-affectedZonefromtheActionofManyConsecutive
Pulses 30
2.5.2 CumulativeHeatingandAdiabaticExpansion 30
2.6 Conclusions 31
3 SphericalAberrationanditsCompensationfor
HighNumericalApertureObjectives 37
MinGuandGuangyongZhou
3.1 Three-dimensionalIndensityPoint-spreadFunctionintheSecond
Medium 38
3.1.1 RefractiveIndicesMismatch-inducedSphericalAberration 38
3.1.2 VectorialPoint-spreadFunctionthroughDielectricInterfaces 39
3.1.3 ScalarPoint-spreadFunctionthroughDielectricInterfaces 40
3.2 SphericalAberrationCompensationbyaTube-lengthChange 41
3.3 EffectsofRefractiveIndicesMismatch-inducedSphericalAberration
on3DOpticalDataStorage 42
3.3.1 AberratedPoint-spreadFunctionInsideaBleachingPolymer 42
3.3.2 CompensationforSphericalAberrationBasedonaVariableTube
Length 46
3.3.3 Three-dimensionalDataStorageinaBleachingPolymer 46
3.4 EffectsofRefractiveIndexMismatchInducedSphericalAberration
ontheLaserTrappingForce 49
3.4.1 IntensityPoint-spreadFunctioninAqueousSolution 49
3.4.2 CompensationforSphericalAberrationBasedonaChangeofTube
Length 50
3.4.3 TransverseTrappingEfficiencyandTrappingPowerunderVarious
EffectiveNumericalApertures 52
3.5 Summary 55
Contents VII
4 TheMeasurementofUltrashortLightPulses
inMicrofabricationApplications 57
XunGu,SelcukAkturk,AparnaShreenath,QiangCao,andRickTrebino
4.1 Introduction 57
4.2 AlternativestoFROG 58
4.3 FROGandCross-correlationFROG 59
4.4 Dithered-crystalXFROGforMeasuringUltracomplex
SupercontinuumPulses 60
4.5 OPAXFROGforMeasuringUltraweakBroadbandEmission 64
4.6 ExtremelySimpleFROGDevice 71
4.7 OtherProgress 80
4.8 Conclusions 82
5 NonlinearOptics 85
JohnBuckandRickTrebino
5.1 LinearversusNonlinearOptics 85
5.2 Nonlinear-opticalEffects 87
5.3 SomeGeneralObservationsaboutNonlinearOptics 92
5.4 TheMathematicsofNonlinearOptics 93
5.4.1 TheSlowlyVaryingEnvelopeApproximation 93
5.4.2 SolvingtheWaveEquationintheSlowlyVaryingEnvelope
Approximation 96
5.5 Phase-matching 97
5.6 Phase-matchingBandwidth 102
5.6.1 DirectCalculation 102
5.6.2 Group-velocityMismatch 104
5.6.3 Phase-matchingBandwidthConclusions 106
5.7 Nonlinear-opticalStrengths 106
6 FilamentationversusOpticalBreakdowninBulkTransparentMedia 109
EugenijusGaizˇauskas
6.1 Introduction 109
6.2 ConicalWaves:TiltedPulses,BesselBeamsandX-typeWaves 111
6.3 DynamicsofShort-pulseSplittinginNonlinearMediawithNormal
Dispersion:EffectsofNonlinearLosses 116
6.4 OnthePhysicsofSelf-channeling:BeamReconstructionfromConial
Waves 120
6.5 Multi-filamentsandMulti-focuses 125
6.5.1 MultipleFlamentationinBulkTransparentMedia 127
6.5.2 CapillaryWaveguidefromFemtosecondFilamentation 131
6.6 FilamentationInducedbyConicalWavepacket 134
6.7 Conclusion 136
VIII Contents
7 PhotophysicsandPhotochemistryof
UltrafastLaserMaterialsProcessing 139
RichardF.Haglund,Jr.
7.1 IntroductionandMotivation 139
7.2 UltrafastLaserMaterialsInteractions:ElectronicExcitation 140
7.2.1 Metals:TheTwo-temperatureModel 142
7.2.2 Semiconductors 145
7.2.2.1 UltrafastLaser-inducedMeltinginSemiconductors 145
7.2.2.2 UltrafastLaserAblationinSemiconductors 147
7.2.2.3 TheoreticalStudiesofFemtosecondLaserInteractionswith
Semiconductors 148
7.2.3 Insulators 148
7.2.3.1 UltrafastAblationofInsulators 150
7.2.3.2 Self-focusingofUltrashortPulsesforThree-dimensional
Structures 152
7.2.3.3 Color-centerFormationbyFemtosecondLaserIrradiation 154
7.3 UltrafastLaser-materialsInteraction:VibrationalExcitation 156
7.3.1 AblationofInorganicMaterialsbyResonantVibrational
Excitation 157
7.3.2 AblationofOrganicMaterialsbyResonantVibrationalExcitation 158
7.4 PhotochemistryinFemtosecondLaser-materialsInteractions 159
7.4.1 SulfidationofSiliconNanostructuresbyFemtosecondIrradiation 160
7.4.2 NitridationofMetalSurfacesUsingPicosecondMIRRadiation 161
7.5 PhotomechanicalEffectsatFemtosecondTimescales 161
7.5.1 ShockWaves,PhaseTransitionsandTribology 162
7.5.2 CoherentPhononExcitationsinMetals 163
7.5.3 UltrafastLaser-inducedForwardTransfer(LIFT) 165
7.6 PulsedLaserDeposition 166
7.6.1 Near-infraredPulsedLaserDeposition 167
7.6.2 InfraredPulsedLaserDepositionofOrganicMaterialsonMicro-and
Nanostructures 168
7.7 FutureTrendsinUltrafastLaserMicromachining 170
7.7.1 Ultrashort-pulseMaterialsModificationatHighPulse-repetition
Frequency 170
7.7.2 PulsedLaserDepositionatHighPulse-repetitionFrequency 171
7.7.2.1 DepositionofInorganicThinFilms 171
7.7.2.2 DepositionofOrganicThinFilms 173
7.7.3 PicosecondProcessingofCarbonNanotubes 174
7.7.4 Sub-micronParallel-processPatterningofMaterialswithUltraviolet
Lasers 174
7.8 SummaryandConclusions 175
Contents IX
8 FormationofSub-wavelengthPeriodicStructuresInside
TransparentMaterials 181
PeterG.Kazansky
8.1 Introduction 182
8.2 AnomalousAnisotropicLight-scatteringinGlass 183
8.3 AnisotropicCherenkovLight-generationinGlass 185
8.4 AnisotropicReflectionfromFemtosecond-laserSelf-organized
NanostructuresinGlass 186
8.5 DirectObservationofSelf-organizedNanostructuresinGlass 190
8.6 MechanismofFormationofSelf-organizedNanostructuresin
Glass 192
8.7 Self-organizedFormBirefringence 195
8.8 Conclusion 198
9 X-rayGenerationfromOpticalTransparentMaterialsby
FocusingUltrashortLaserPulses 199
KojiHatanakaandHiroshiFukumura
9.1 Introduction 199
9.2 Laser-inducedHigh-energyPhotonEmissionfromTransparent
Materials 201
9.2.1 EmissionofExtremeUltravioletLightandSoftX-ray 201
9.2.2 FundamentalMechanismsLeadingtoHigh-energyPhoton
Emission 204
9.2.3 CharacteristicX-rayIntensityasaFunctionofAtomicNumber 208
9.3 CharacteristicsofHardX-rayEmissionfromTransparent
Materials 213
9.3.1 ExperimentalSetupsforLaser-inducedHardX-rayEmission 213
9.3.2 EffectsofAirPlasmaandSampleSelf-absorption 215
9.3.3 Multi-photonAbsorptionandEffectsoftheAdditionof
Electrolytes 218
9.3.4 Multi-shotEffectsonSolidMaterials 219
9.3.5 Pre-pulseIrradiationEffectsonAqueousSolutions 224
9.4 PossibleApplications 230
9.4.1 X-rayImaging 230
9.4.2 ElementalAnalysisbyX-rayEmissionSpectroscopy 231
9.4.3 Ultra-fastX-rayAbsorptionSpectroscopy 234
9.5 Summary 235
10 FemtosecondLaserMicrofabricationofPhotonicCrystals 239
VygantasMizeikis,ShigekiMatsuo,SauliusJuodkazis,andHiroakiMisawa
10.1 MicrofabricationofPhotonicCrystalsbyUltrafastLasers 240
10.1.1 NonlinearAbsorptionofSpatiallyNonuniformLaserFields 242
10.1.2 MechanismsofPhotomodification 244