(2018) Cross-cultural communication and the adjustment of Western and non-Western expatriates ...

309 Pages·2017·3.31 MB·English

Al Mahrouqi, Abdullah (2018) Cross-cultural communication and the
adjustment of Western and non-Western expatriates in multicultural
companies: investigating operations in Oman. PhD thesis.

https://theses.gla.ac.uk/8929/

Copyright and moral rights for this work are retained by the author
A copy can be downloaded for personal non-commercial research or study,
without prior permission or charge
This work cannot be reproduced or quoted extensively from without first
obtaining permission in writing from the author
The content must not be changed in any way or sold commercially in any
format or medium without the formal permission of the author
When referring to this work, full bibliographic details including the author,
title, awarding institution and date of the thesis must be given

Enlighten: Theses
https://theses.gla.ac.uk/
[email protected]
Cross-Cultural Communication and the Adjustment of
Western and Non-Western Expatriates in Multicultural
Companies: Investigating Operations in Oman

ABDULLAH AL MAHROUQI

A THESIS SUBMITTED IN PARTIAL FULFILMENT OF
THE REQUIREMENTS FOR A DOCTORAL DEGREE
Adam Smith Business School
College of Social Science
UNIVERSITY OF GLASGOW

2018
ABSTRACT
This thesis explores the state of existing knowledge on expatriate work assignments and
matters of adjustment and adaptation as they affect Western, non-Western and host workers
in Arab countries, specifically Oman. The main purpose of the research is to provide an
integrated analysis of expatriate adjustment from the perspectives of Western and, crucially,
non-Western expatriates and their host national counterparts. It offers a critical appreciation
of factors included in Black, Mendenhall, and Oddou's (1991) influential Framework for
International Adjustment (FIA). The thesis identifies weaknesses in the Black et al approach,
drawing insights from more recent literature to consider the dynamics of cross-cultural
interaction and offer a deeper understanding of reciprocal influence, accommodating the
neglected viewpoints of non-Western expatriates and focusing greater attention on host
national attitudes and responses to dealing with Western workers.
This sort of relational approach is rare in this area, as much of the literature talks only about
the Western expatriate experience. A crucial point borne out by this research is that the way
host nationals and expatriates cooperate and interact helps to explain: (i) why host nationals
are often reluctant to integrate with Western expatriates in particular; and (ii) how host
national reluctance can influence the adjustment experience of wider expatriate
communities. These neglected factors were explored by developing an understanding of the
extent to which host nationals interpret differences in culture and forms of behaviour within
and across multinational work groups, and also by investigating host national attitudes
towards unacceptable cultural behaviour on the part of expatriates.
Quantitative and qualitative data on these issues was gathered through a detailed survey,
supplemented by in-depth interviewing. Semi-structured face–to-face interviews were
conducted with 18 expatriates and 22 Omani managers and employees drawn from
petroleum and educational institutions. The results show important differences between
Western and non-Western expatriates in terms of both their sense-making about adjustment
and attitudes and orientations to working with host national Omanis. The research also
highlights significant challenges for the cultural adjustment and workplace effectiveness of
host nationals themselves. These centre on competing ideas about the significance of
religion, customs, traditions, and gender segregation. Cultural novelty emerges as a
significant phenomenon, showing positive links to cultural (social) and work adjustment.
The analysis of these factors demonstrates that Western-centric accounts provide an
inadequate basis for understanding and facilitating multinational work assignments in Oman.
2
Contents
ABSTRACT ............................................................................................................................................ 2
LIST OF FIGURES .................................................................................................................................. 5
LIST OF TABLES .................................................................................................................................... 6
ACKNOWLEDGEMENT ......................................................................................................................... 7
AUTHOR’S DECLARATION ................................................................................................................... 8
THE RESEARCH INTRODUCTION AND OVERVIEW ............................................................................... 9
Introduction .................................................................................................................................... 9
Background and research problem ............................................................................................... 11
Aims of the study .......................................................................................................................... 18
The researcher’s personal goal ..................................................................................................... 20
Research significance .................................................................................................................... 21
The Research Questions................................................................................................................ 22
Increasing knowledge of expatriate adjustment experiences ...................................................... 23
The context of the study ............................................................................................................... 24
Structure of the thesis .................................................................................................................. 27
Chapter 1: Literature Review ............................................................................................................ 29
1.1 Introduction ............................................................................................................................ 29
1.2 Cultural distance ..................................................................................................................... 29
1.3 Expatriate adjustment............................................................................................................. 47
1.4 Cross-cultural training ............................................................................................................. 71
1.5 Synthesis ................................................................................................................................. 81
CHAPTER 2: RESEARCH METHODOLOGY .......................................................................................... 84
2.1 Introduction ............................................................................................................................ 84
2.2 Purpose of the Research ......................................................................................................... 84
2.3 Process of Mixed Methods Research Design .......................................................................... 85
2.4 The philosophical foundations of this research ...................................................................... 86
2.5 Research paradigms ................................................................................................................ 87
2.6 Justification for the selected method ..................................................................................... 90
2.7 Quantitative and Qualitative Approach of the study .............................................................. 92
2.8 Methodological considerations .............................................................................................. 95
2.9 Time horizons ........................................................................................................................ 101
2.10 Data collection methods ..................................................................................................... 102
2.11 Reliability measure .............................................................................................................. 105
3
2.12 Qualitative instruments and data collection ...................................................................... 106
2.13 Data analysis process .......................................................................................................... 110
2.14 Validity and reliability ......................................................................................................... 110
2.15 Ethical issues ....................................................................................................................... 111
Chapter 3: Data Analysis & Findings: (Quantitative Results) .......................................................... 112
3.1 Introduction .......................................................................................................................... 112
3.2. Cultural Distance (Novelty) .................................................................................................. 112
3.3. Expatriates Cultural adjustment and challenges in Oman ................................................... 119
3.4. Work adjustment ................................................................................................................. 128
3.5 Cross cultural interaction adjustment .................................................................................. 131
3.6 Cross- cultural training and supports .................................................................................... 139
3.7 Conclusion ............................................................................................................................. 149
Chapter 4: Qualitative Data Collection and Data Analysis .............................................................. 153
4.1 Cultural differences and challenges of Expatriate Adjustment in Oman .............................. 153
4.2 Work adjustment .................................................................................................................. 180
4.3 Expatriates’ Cross-cultural Communication Adjustment ...................................................... 187
4.4 Cross- cultural training and supports .................................................................................... 196
4.5 Reasons for an early return of expatriates ........................................................................... 202
4.6 Summary ............................................................................................................................... 203
Chapter 5: DISCUSSION ................................................................................................................... 208
5.1 Experiencing cultural novelty ................................................................................................ 208
5.2 Cultural adjustment and the challenges facing expatriates in Oman ................................... 216
5.3 Work adjustments ................................................................................................................. 223
5.4 Cross-cultural interaction adjustments................................................................................. 224
5.5 Cross-cultural training and concepts .................................................................................... 226
5.6 The impact of cultural differences on the locals and society ............................................... 228
CHAPTER 6: CONCLUSION AND IMPLICATIONS .............................................................................. 231
6.1 Conclusion ............................................................................................................................. 231
6.2 Theoretical and practical implications .................................................................................. 233
6.3 Study limitations and suggestions for future research ......................................................... 234
List of References ............................................................................................................................ 236
Appendixes ...................................................................................................................................... 267

4
LIST OF FIGURES

FIGURE 1 THE U-CURVE THEORY OF CROSS-CULTURAL ADJUSTMENT .............................................................. 50
FIGURE 2 FRAMEWORK OF INTERNATIONAL ADJUSTMENT ................................................................................ 53
FIGURE 3 THE RESEARCH DESIGN PROCESS (ADAPTED FROM SAUNDERS ET AL (2016: 124)) ............................. 86
FIGURE 4 THE RESEARCH DESIGN. SOURCE: CREATED BY THE AUTHOR. .......................................................... 93
FIGURE 5 FACTORS MOST INFLUENCE THE RELATIONSHIP BETWEEN EXPATRIATES AND OMANIS FROM
EXPATRIATES’ PERSPECTIVES ................................................................................................................. 136
FIGURE 6 FACTORS MOST INFLUENCE THE RELATIONSHIP BETWEEN EXPATRIATES AND OMANIS FROM OMANIS’
PERSPECTIVES ........................................................................................................................................ 138
FIGURE 7 THE PERCENTAGES OF IMPORTANT TOPICS THAT EXPATRIATES PREFER TO BE PROVIDED IN PRE-
DEPARTURE TRAINING PROGRAMS .......................................................................................................... 141
FIGURE 8 THE PERCENTAGES OF IMPORTANT TOPICS THAT OMANIS PREFER TO BE PROVIDED IN PRE-DEPARTURE
TRAINING PROGRAMS ............................................................................................................................. 142

5
LIST OF TABLES
TABLE 1 DEMOGRAPHIC CHARACTERISTICS OF THE SURVEY EXPATRIATE PARTICIPANTS IN THE STUDY ........ 104
TABLE 2 DEMOGRAPHIC CHARACTERISTICS OF THE SURVEY OMANI PARTICIPANTS IN THE STUDY................. 104
TABLE 3 INSTRUMENT RELIABILITY OF EXPATRIATES' SCALES ........................................................................ 105
TABLE 4 INSTRUMENT RELIABILITY OF OMANIS SCALES ................................................................................ 106
TABLE 5 DEMOGRAPHIC CHARACTERISTICS OF THE INTERVIEW EXPATRIATE PARTICIPANTS IN THE STUDY ... 109
TABLE 6 EXPATRIATES’ POINT OF VIEW OF CULTURAL DISTANCE (CULTURAL NOVELTY) OF LIVING BETWEEN
THE HOST COUNTRY (OMAN) AND THE HOME COUNTRIES INFLUENCING THEIR ADJUSTMENT. ............... 114
TABLE 7 DIFFERENCES BETWEEN WESTERN EXPATRIATES AND OTHER EXPIATES IN TERMS OF CULTURAL
DISTANCE OF LIVING BETWEEN THE HOST COUNTRY (OMAN) AND THEIR HOME COUNTRIES. ................. 116
TABLE 8 OMANIS’ POINT OF VIEW OF DIFFERENCES IN CULTURAL DISTANCE OF LIVING BETWEEN THE HOST
COUNTRY (OMAN) AND THE HOME COUNTRIES INFLUENCING THEIR ADJUSTMENT................................. 117
TABLE 9 DIFFERENCES BETWEEN OMANIS AND EXPATRIATES ON CULTURAL DISTANCE BETWEEN OMAN AND
THEIR HOME COUNTRIES. ........................................................................................................................ 119
TABLE 10 CULTURAL AND SOCIAL ADJUSTMENT DIFFICULTIES FROM EXPATRIATES’ POINT OF VIEW ............. 120
TABLE 11 DIFFERENCES BETWEEN WESTERN AND OTHER EXPATS IN DIFFICULTIES OF EXPATRIATES'
ADJUSTMENT .......................................................................................................................................... 122
TABLE 12 DIFFICULTIES OF EXPATRIATES' ADJUSTMENT FROM OMANIS’ POINT OF VIEW ............................... 123
TABLE 13 DIFFERENCES BETWEEN EXPATRIATES AND OMANIS IN DIFFICULTIES OF EXPATRIATES' ADJUSTMENT
............................................................................................................................................................... 124
TABLE 14 DIFFERENCES BETWEEN WESTERNS AND NON-WESTERN EXPATRIATES AND BETWEEN EXPATRIATES
IN GENERAL AND OMANIS ON CULTURAL DIFFICULTIES WHEN THEY ARE CARRYING OUT THEIR JOB IN
OMAN..................................................................................................................................................... 126
TABLE 15 DIFFERENCES BETWEEN WESTERNS AND NON-WESTERN EXPATRIATES AND BETWEEN EXPATRIATES
IN GENERAL AND OMANIS ON CULTURAL DIFFICULTIES WHEN THEY ARE CARRYING OUT THEIR JOB IN
OMAN..................................................................................................................................................... 126
TABLE 16 RESULTS OF REGRESSION ANALYSIS WITH CULTURAL ADJUSTMENT AS THE DEPENDENT VARIABLE.
............................................................................................................................................................... 128
TABLE 17 EXPATRIATES' WORK ADJUSTMENT FROM EXPATRIATES’ POINT OF VIEW ....................................... 129
TABLE 18 EXPATRIATES' WORK ADJUSTMENT FROM OMANIS’ POINT OF VIEW ................................................ 130
TABLE 19 RESULTS OF REGRESSION ANALYSIS WITH WORK ADJUSTMENT AS THE DEPENDENT VARIABLE .. 131
TABLE 20 WORKING AND NON-WORKING CROSS-CULTURAL COMMUNICATION AND INTERACTION FEATURES OF
EXPATRIATES WORKING IN OMAN WITH OMANI EMPLOYEES ................................................................. 132
TABLE 21 DIFFERENCES OF WORKING AND NON-WORKING CROSS-CULTURAL COMMUNICATION AND
INTERACTION FEATURES OF WESTERN AND NON-WESTERN EXPATRIATES WORKING IN OMAN WITH OMANI
EMPLOYEES ............................................................................................................................................ 133
TABLE 22 WORKING AND NON-WORKING CROSS-CULTURAL COMMUNICATION AND INTERACTION FEATURES OF
OMANI EMPLOYEES WITH EXPATRIATES WORKING IN OMAN ................................................................. 134
TABLE 23 FACTORS MOST IMPORTANT IN THE EXPATRIATES’ RELATIONSHIP WITH OMANIS........................... 135
TABLE 24 DIFFERENCES BETWEEN WESTERN AND NON-WESTERN EXPATRIATES ON FACTORS MOST IMPORTANT
IN THE EXPATRIATES’ RELATIONSHIP WITH OMANIS............................................................................... 136
TABLE 25 FACTORS MOST IMPORTANT IN OMANIS’ RELATIONSHIP WITH EXPATRIATES ................................. 137
TABLE 26 RESULTS OF REGRESSION ANALYSIS WITH CULTURAL ADJUSTMENT AS THE DEPENDENT VARIABLE
............................................................................................................................................................... 139
TABLE 27 PERCENTAGES OF TRAINING PROVIDED FOR EXPATRIATES .............................................................. 140
TABLE 28 THE PERCEPTIONS OF EXPATRIATES ABOUT TRAINING PROGRAMS THAT THEY HAD. ....................... 143
TABLE 29 THE PERCEPTIONS OF OMANIS ABOUT TRAINING PROGRAMS THAT EXPATRIATES HAD. .................. 146

6
ACKNOWLEDGEMENT

The journey of doctoral study is long and demanding, especially for international students
who must adjust to unfamiliar situations and express their ideas in a foreign language that is
not their mother tongue. Therefore, this project would not have been possible without the
great guidance and support of several individuals who, in one way or another, contributed
and extended their valuable help in the preparation and completion of this thesis. I dedicate
this study to my parents, my wife, brothers, sisters, and my sons and daughters.
My utmost gratitude goes out to my main supervisor, Professor Martin Beirne, for his
continued patience, guidance, valuable advice, suggestions and the genuine interest he
provided to me from the start and throughout the duration of this project. The on-going
support I received from Professor Martin has been instrumental in my success, for which I
will remain forever grateful. Additionally, my appreciation also goes out to Dr Judith Pate
for her guiding and insightful comments and for providing me with encouragement during
this period.
I also would like to thank my friend and colleague Dr. Nawaf who lived through the journey
with me day by day, from our first meeting in the first year of our studies until he has
graduated. I would like to express my heartfelt thanks to him for his help in more ways than
he perhaps realised, through the conversations we had, the questions he posed and for
providing me with continued support in a variety of ways, both personally and academically.
Finally, special recognition goes out to my family for their support, encouragement and
patience during the course of my studies. To my lovely wife, who has inspired me, provided
me with constant encouragement and who has upheld and carried the responsibilities at home
and been a wonderful mother bringing up our children during my studies. Without her
patience and supports this project would not have been possible.

7
AUTHOR’S DECLARATION

I declare that, except where explicit reference is made to the contribution of others, that
this dissertation is the result of my own work and has not been submitted for any other
degree at the University of Glasgow or any other institution.

Signature _______________________________
Printed name _______________________________ "

8
THE RESEARCH INTRODUCTION AND OVERVIEW

Introduction
This thesis presents original research on the experiences of Western and non-Western
expatriates working and living in the educational and petroleum sectors in Oman. The
purpose is to identify and understand the adjustment issues experienced by expatriates
following their relocation to the host country. Expatriates are workers who have either
chosen to leave their homeland to live or work in another country or who have been sent to
work in another country by their employers for a lengthy period of time (Tran, 2008). In this
study, Western expatriates are defined as expatriates came from nationals, who have been
sent to work on international assignments or projects for a specified period of time lasting
from twelve months to multiple years. In the most political sense commonly used, ‘the West’
describes an interstate political space comprised of states in Europe and North America, and
Australia, New Zealand and possibly Japan in the Pacific (see appendix F) (Hellmann et al,
2017). However, constructivists argue that rather than a geographical area or group of states
united by a common cultural heritage, the West is a socially may constructed political space
(Adler and Barnett, 1998). Non-Western expatriates, in this study, are defined as those who
came to work in Oman from other countries around the world, including India, Pakistan, and
the Philippines, which are key sources of incoming labour.
The research focus is on the main factors surrounding the cultural novelty and differences
between Western and non-Western expatriates and Arabic cultures that influence the
adjustment of expatriates during their time in Oman. In more detail, it focuses on the major
factors that influence lifestyle adjustment, interaction adjustment to working with Omani
nationals and work process adjustment. By contrast with established literature on the
experiences and adjustment challenges confronting expatriates, this study is distinguished
by a relational focus that considers the dynamics of interaction between and among local
Omanis, Western and non-Western expatriates working in the Sultanate of Oman. It aims
for an integrated understanding of their interrelated experiences, emerging interpretations
and on-going responses to distinctive patterns of reciprocal interaction, mutual adjustment,
and also tension in the working out of every day contacts between these fluid workplace
communities.
9