2011 ESPAD Report: Substance Use Among Students in 36 European Countries, The

2011·6.8 MB·English

by  Hibell, Bjorn, Ahlstrom, Salme, Balakireva, Olga, Bjarnason, Thoroddur, Guttormsson, Ulf, Kokkevi, Anna, Kraus, Ludwig

The 2011 Espad Report
Substance Use Among Students in 36 European Countries
T
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The European School Survey Project on Alcohol and Other Drugs (ESPAD) is a collaborative
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effort of independent research teams in more than forty European countries, making it the
1
largest cross-national research project on adolescent substance use in the world.
1

ESPAD was founded in 1993, on the initiative of the Swedish Council for Information on E
Alcohol and Other Drugs (CAN) and with the support of the Pompidou Group at the Council of s
Europe. In later years, ESPAD has also established co-operation with the European Monitoring p
Centre for Drugs and Drug Addiction (EMCDDA), a body of the European Union. a
d
Most of the European continent is now covered by ESPAD, meaning that it provides a reliable
R
overview of trends in substance use among 15–16-year-old European students. Data are
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collected every four years. This report presents the results from the fifth wave, conducted in p
36 countries during spring 2011. It gives a comprehensive picture of the present situation o
among European young people as regards the use of tobacco, alcohol, cannabis and other r
t
substances, as well as an overview of trends in 1995–2011.
2011 Espad Countries in the report
Albania Germany Montenegro
Belgium Greece Norway
Bosnia and Herzegovina Hungary Poland
Bulgaria Iceland Portugal
Croatia Ireland Romania
Cyprus Italy Russian Federation
Czech Republic Latvia Serbia
Denmark Liechtenstein Slovak Republic
Estonia Lithuania Slovenia
Faroe Islands Malta Sweden
Finland Moldova, Rep. of Ukraine
France Monaco United Kingdom
Björn Hibell, Ulf Guttormsson, Salme Ahlström,
www.espad.org Olga Balakireva, Thoroddur Bjarnason, Anna Kokkevi, Ludwig Kraus
emcdda.europa.eu
emcdda.europa.eu

The 2011 ESPAD Report
Substance Use Among Students in 36 European Countries
Björn Hibell, Ulf Guttormsson, Salme Ahlström,
Olga Balakireva, Thoroddur Bjarnason, Anna Kokkevi, Ludwig Kraus
With the contribution of:
Airi-Alina Allaste, Sharon Arpa, Mark Bellis, Anina Chileva, Spomenka Ciric-Jankovic, Ladislav Csèmy,
Tatijana Djurisic, Zsuzsanna Elekes, Fernanda Feijão, Silvia Florescu, Esther Kocsis, Eugenia Koshkina, Marina Kuzman,
Patrick Lambrecht, Stéphane Legleye, Sabrina Molinaro, Mark Morgan, Alojz Nociar, Alexander Pabst, Daniela Piontek,
Svend Sabroe, Otilia Scutelniciuc, Janusz Sieroslawski, Sladjana Siljak, Astrid Skretting, Stanislas Spilka,
Eva Stergar, Tadas Tamosiunas, Ervin Toci, Marcis Trapencieris, Kyriakos Veresies, Pál Weihe
emcdda.europa.eu
The Swedish Council for Information on Alcohol and other Drugs (CAN)
The European Monitoring Centre for Drugs and Drug Addiction (EMCDDA)
Council of Europe, Co-operation Group to Combat Drug Abuse and Illicit Trafficking in Drugs (Pompidou Group)
© The Swedish Council for Information on Alcohol and Other Drugs (CAN) and the authors
Printed in Sweden by modintryckoffset AB, Stockholm, May 2012
Production funded by The Swedish Ministry of Health and Social Affairs and the European
Monitoring Centre for Drugs and Drug Addiction (EMCDDA)
Cover design and layout Les Creatives Sthlm
ISBN 978-91-7278-233-4 (print)
URN:NBN:se:can-2012-2 (pdf)
The Swedish Council for Information on Alcohol and Other Drugs (CAN)
Klara Norra Kyrkogata 34, Box 70412, 107 25 Stockholm, Sweden
Telephone [phone], fax [phone], [email protected], www.can.se
Preface
This is the report from the fifth data-collection wave of the European School Survey Project on Alcohol
and Other Drugs (ESPAD). It is based on data from more than 100,000 European students. Over the
years about 500,000 European students have answered the ESPAD questionnaire. This is the second
ESPAD report to be based on a common database, which is managed by the ESPAD Databank Manager,
Thoroddur Bjarnason.
The first ESPAD report, with data from 1995, included information from 26 countries, while this fifth
report contains results from 36 countries. Another three countries collected data in the autumn of 2011
and results from these countries will be added on the ESPAD website. ESPAD is now established in
more than 40 countries and covers most of the European continent. Over the years, ESPAD has become
an increasingly important source of information about young people’s substance use.
The ESPAD project was initiated in 1993 by the Swedish Council for Information on Alcohol and
Other Drugs (CAN) as a follow-up of a test of a European school-survey questionnaire funded by the
Pompidou Group at the Council of Europe in a pilot study in 1986–1988. In the light of this experi-
ence and Swedish expertise in the field of school surveys, CAN started the collaborative project. The
first meeting was hosted and supported by the Pompidou Group, who also suggested many of the par-
ticipants invited. This co-operation has continued since then, and the Pompidou Group has funded the
participation of researchers from central and eastern Europe in the annual Project Meetings.
ESPAD also has an established contact with the European Monitoring Centre for Drugs and Drug
Addiction (EMCDDA) in Lisbon. This co-operation has deepened in later years and has included sup-
port for data collection, analysis and reporting as well as the hosting of an ESPAD Project Meeting. The
EMCDDA has also contributed to the production of this report and ensures the multilingual dissemina-
tion of ESPAD results.
Work on this report would not have been possible without financial support from the Swedish
Ministry of Health and Social Affairs for the co-ordination of the project as well as to the production of
this report. We are also grateful for the support received from the EMCDDA and the Pompidou Group.
We are very grateful to Jonas Raininen, who was responsible for the statistical tests, to Johan
Segerbäck, who checked the language of the report, and to Thomas Löwenberg, who was responsible
for the layout of the report.
An extensive project with data from 36 countries would of course not have been possible without
the self-sacrificing work of all our ESPAD colleagues. We very much appreciate not only their support
and qualified contributions to the development of the project, but also the friendly and collaborative
atmosphere that characterises our contacts, meetings and seminars.
A large number of people in every country have made an important contribution to this report. We
would like to express our gratitude to all of those who made this report possible, including teachers,
research assistants and others who collected data, and last but not least the huge number of students
across Europe who have helped us arrive at a better understanding of young people’s substance use.

Stockholm, May 2012
Björn Hibell, PhD Ulf Guttormsson
ESPAD Coordinator Research Associate, CAN
ESPAD Coordinator
The 2011 ESPAD Report 3

Contents
Summary ...............................................................................9 Perceived risks of substance use .........................................95
Methodology and data quality .............................................10 Lifetime abstinence from various substances ......................97
Cigarettes ............................................................................10 Associations between use of different substances ..................98
Alcohol ................................................................................11
Illicit drugs ..........................................................................13 Key results 2011 country by country .................................101
Other substances ................................................................14
Final remarks .......................................................................14 Trends 1995–2011 ............................................................121
Changes in cigarette smoking ............................................123
Acknowledgements .............................................................17 Changes in alcohol consumption .......................................123
Changes in illicit drug use ..................................................134
Introduction to ESPAD and The 2011 Report ........................19 Changes in the use of other substances .............................138
Rationale .............................................................................20 Changes in lifetime abstinence from various substances ...146
Background to ESPAD ..........................................................21
Purposes of ESPAD .............................................................21 What is the European average? .........................................153
Organisation of ESPAD .........................................................21
Ownership of ESPAD ............................................................22 The Cannabis Abuse Screening Test ..................................157
Participating countries ........................................................22 Introduction .......................................................................158
The 2011 ESPAD report ........................................................22 Methods ............................................................................158
References ..........................................................................25 Results ..............................................................................159
Discussion .........................................................................162
ESPAD methodology and procedures...................................27 References ........................................................................163
The ESPAD handbook ..........................................................28
Target population ................................................................28 Polydrug use by European adolescents .............................165
National project plans and regional seminars ......................28 Results ..............................................................................166
Sampling .............................................................................28 Discussion .........................................................................169
Student questionnaire .........................................................28 References ........................................................................170
Fieldwork .............................................................................29 Acknowledgments ............................................................170
Data capture and delivery – with focus on 2011 ..................30
ESPAD databases ................................................................30 Appendix I – Acknowledgements.......................................171
Reference ............................................................................30
Appendix II – Sampling and data collection
Methodological considerations ...........................................31 in participating countries ..................................................175
Introduction .........................................................................32
Appendix III – Tables .........................................................253
Ethical considerations .........................................................33
Methodological improvements – changes to the Appendix IV – Student questionnaire ................................369
questionnaire and to the data-cleaning procedure ...............34
Representativeness .............................................................38
Reliability ............................................................................45
Validity ................................................................................48
Comparisons with other survey data ....................................56
General and country-specific conclusions ............................60
References ..........................................................................61
The situation in 2011 ..........................................................63
Introduction .........................................................................64
Cigarettes ............................................................................64
Alcohol ................................................................................66
Illicit drugs ..........................................................................84
Various drugs ......................................................................91
Age of onset for various substances.....................................95
The 2011 ESPAD Report 5
Contents
TAblES Table O ...............................................................58 Table C2 ...........................................................168
Alcohol use in the ESPAD (2011) and HBSC Prevalence of substance use and polydrug use by
Summary Table ..................................................12 (2009/10) surveys. Student answering 3 times or country. Percentages. 2007 and 2011.
Selected key variables by country. Percentages (if more often during the past 30 days (ESPAD) or at
not otherwise indicated). ESPAD 2011. Colours indi- least weekly (HBSC). Percentages among boys and Table C3 ...........................................................169
cate significant changes to the 2007 data collection. girls, rxy and Spearman’s rank correlation coefficient Combinations of substances involved in polydrug
(rrank). use, by year (country average of percentages in the
Table A ...............................................................23 29 countries). Percentages. 2007 and 2011.
Countries participating in ESPAD. 1995–2011. Table P ...............................................................58
Drunkenness in the ESPAD (2011) and HBSC Table C4 ...........................................................169
Table b ...............................................................33 (2009/10) surveys. Students who have ever been Polydrug use with or without use of tranquillisers
Ethical aspects. ESPAD 2011. drunk (ESPAD) or have been drunk at least twice (country average of percentages in the 29 countries).
(HBSC). Percentages among boys and girls, rxy and Percentages. 2007 and 2011.
Table C ...............................................................35 Spearman’s rank correlation coefficient (rrank).
Refusals, discarded questionnaires and number
of valid questionnaires from 1995 born students. Table Q ...............................................................59
ESPAD 2011. Lifetime use of cannabis in the ESPAD (2011) and FIGURES
HBSC (2009/10) surveys. Percentages among boys
Table D ...............................................................36 and girls, rxy and Spearman’s rank correlation coef- Summary Figure .................................................15
Non response rates before logical substitution of ficient (rrank). Trends for eight key variables by gender. 1995–
missing values and the substitution impact (reduc- 2011. Average percentages (if otherwise not indi-
tion) for 7 prevalence measures and the total aver- Table R ...............................................................59 cated) for the 14–26 countries providing trend data.
age for all core questions. ESPAD 2011. 30 days prevalence of cannabis use in the ESPAD
(2011) and HBSC (2009/10) surveys. Percentages Figure 1a–b ........................................................67
Table E ...............................................................37 among boys and girls, rxy and Spearman’s rank cor- Cigarette use during the past 30 days. 2011.
Changes in lifetime prevalence (LTP) of different relation coefficient (rrank). Percentages. (Table 3)
substances due to data cleaning. Percentages.
ESPAD 2011. Table S ...............................................................66 Figure 2a–b ........................................................69
Statistical correlations (Pearson) on an aggregate Alcohol use during the past 12 months. Percentages.
Table F ................................................................39 country level between smoking-related variables. (Table 9)
Characteristics of the national samples. ESPAD 35 ESPAD countries. 2011.
2011. Figure 3a–b ........................................................71
Table T ...............................................................70 Alcohol use during the past 30 days. 2011.
Table G ...............................................................41 Statistical correlations (Pearson) on an aggregate Percentages. (Table 10)
Characteristics of the data collection. ESPAD 2011. country level between variables related to alcohol
use. 33 ESPAD countries. 2011. Figure 4a–b ........................................................73
Table H ...............................................................43 Estimated average alcohol consumption during the
Participating schools and classes and students’ Table U ..............................................................74 last alcohol drinking day among students reporting
presence rates. Percentages. ESPAD 2011. Statistical correlations (Pearson) on an aggregate any last day-alcohol consumption. 2011. Centilitres
country level between variables related to alcohol 100% alcohol. (Table 17)
Table I ................................................................46 use. 32–34 ESPAD countries. 2011.
Some aspects of reliability. Inconsistency between Figure 5a–b ........................................................76
two questions in a single administration. Students Table V ...............................................................77 Dominating beverage during the last alcohol drink-
reporting lifetime substance use on one question Statistical correlations (Pearson) on an aggregate ing day among students reporting any last day-
but not on another. Percentages and quotient. country level between different measures of drunk- alcohol consumption. Proportion of total volume (in
ESPAD 2011. enness-oriented drinking. 31–34 ESPAD countries. 100% alcohol). 2011. (Table 17)
2011.
Table J ................................................................50 Figure 6a–b ........................................................78
Opinions of survey leaders. Percentages. ESPAD 2011. Table X ...............................................................84 Being drunk during the past 30 days. 2011.
Statistical correlations (Pearson) on an aggregate Percentages. (Table 22)
Table K ...............................................................52 country level between different alcohol measures.
Number of used items and average completion time. 31–34 ESPAD countries. 2011. Figure 7a–b ........................................................79
ESPAD 2011. Having had five or more drinks on one occasiondur-
Table Y ..............................................................88 ing the past 30 days. 2011. Percentages. (Table 23)
Table l ...............................................................54 Statistical correlations (Pearson) on an aggregate
Some aspects of validity: Inconsistent answers, un- country level between various variables relating to Figure 8 ..............................................................81
willingness to admit cannabis use and reported use use of illicit drugs. 35 ESPAD countries. 2011 Expected positive and negative consequences from
of the dummy drug “relevin”. Percentages. ESPAD alcohol consumption. Number of statements for
2011. Table Z ...............................................................98 which the percentage of all students answering
Statistical correlations (Pearson) on an aggregate positive or negative consequences are “likely” or
Table M ..............................................................57 country level between key substance-use variables. “very likely” to appear exceeds the average of all
Alcohol and drug use in Finland. Frequency of life- 32–35 ESPAD countries. 2011 countries. 2011. Number of consequences.
time use. Data from ESPAD and the School Health (Table 25)
Promotion Study in Finish schools in 2010 and Table A1 ...........................................................155
2011. Percentages among boys and girls. Difference between country average and population Figure 9 ..............................................................83
average. 2011. Percentages. The proportion of students reporting having ex-
Table N ...............................................................57 perienced any of the following problem attributed
Alcohol and drug use in Sweden. Frequency of life- Table C1 ...........................................................166 to own use of alcohol during the past 12 months.
time and last 30 days use. Data from ESPAD and the Use of each individual substance and polydrug use 2011. Percentages. (Table 26).
annual Swedish school survey in 2011 in grade 9. (country average of prevalence in the 29 countries).
Percentages among boys and girls. Percentages. 2007 and 2011.
6 The 2011 ESPAD Report
Contents
Figure 10 ............................................................83 Figure 21b ........................................................126 Figure 24d ........................................................133
Experienced problems attributed to own alcohol use Use of any alcoholic beverage during the past 12 Proportion reporting having had five or more drinks
during past 12 months. The number of variables months. 1995–2011. Averages for all and for 18 on one occasion during the past 30 days by country.
within each problem group for which a country’s per- countries respectively. Percentages. (Table 46) 1995–2011. Percentages. (Table 56)
centage exceeds the average of all countries. 2011.
Number of problems. (Table 26) Figure 21c ........................................................126 Figure 25a ........................................................134
Use of any alcoholic beverage during the past 12 Changes between 2007 and 2011 in lifetime use of
Figure 11a-b .......................................................86 months by gender. 1995–2011. Averages for 18 illicit drugs . All students. Percentages. (Table 59)
Perceived availability of cannabis. Students re- countries. Percentages. (Table 46)
sponding marijuana or hashish “fairly easy” or “very Figure 25b ........................................................134
easy” to obtain. 2011. Percentages. (Table 27) Figure 21d ........................................................127 Lifetime use of illicit drugs. 1995–2011.
Use of any alcoholic beverage during the past 12 Averages for all and for 19 countries respectively.
Figure 12a-b .......................................................87 months by country. 1995–2011. Percentages. (Table 46) Percentages. (Table 59)
Lifetime use of illicit drugs . 2011. Percentages.
(Table 28) Figure 22a ........................................................128 Figure 25c ........................................................134
Changes between 2007 and 2011 in use of any alco- Lifetime use of illicit drugs by gender. 1995–2011.
Figure 13a–b ......................................................89 holic beverage during the past 30 days. All students. Averages for 19 countries. Percentages. (Table 59)
Lifetime use of marijuana or hashish. 2011. Percentages. (Table 48)
Percentages. (Table 29) Figure 25d ........................................................135
Figure 22b ........................................................128 Lifetime use of illicit drugs by country. 1995–2011.
Figure 14a–b ......................................................90 Use of any alcoholic beverage during the past 30 Percentages. (Table 59)
Use of marijuana or hashish past 30 days. days by gender. 1995–2011. Averages for all and for
All students. 2011. Percentages. (Table 31) 18 countries respectively. Percentages. (Table 48) Figure 26a ........................................................138
Changes between 2007 and 2011 in lifetime use
Figure 15a–b ......................................................92 Figure 22c ........................................................128 of marijuana or hashish. All students. Percentages.
Lifetime use of illicit drugs other than marijuana or Use of any alcoholic beverage during the past 30 (Table 60)
hashish. 2011. Percentages. (Table 33) days bygender. 1995–2011. Averages for 18 coun-
tries. Percentages. (Table 48) Figure 26b ........................................................138
Figure 16a–b ......................................................94 Lifetime use of marijuana or hashish. 1995–2011.
Lifetime use of tranquillisers or sedatives without Figure 22d ........................................................129 Averages for all and for 19 countries respectively.
prescription. 2011. Percentages. (Table 36) Use of any alcoholic beverage during the past 30 days Percentages. (Table 60)
by country. 1995–2011. Percentages. (Table 48)
Figure 17a–b ......................................................96 Figure 26c ........................................................138
Lifetime use of inhalants. 2011. Percentages. Figure 23a ........................................................130 Lifetime use of marijuana or hashish by gender.
(Table 37) Estimated average alcohol consumption during the 1995–2011. Averages for 19 countries. Percentages.
last alcohol drinking day among students reporting (Table 60)
Figure 18 ............................................................97 any last day alcohol consumption. 2007–2011.
Age of onset for various substances and combina- Averages for all and for 26 countries respectively. Figure 26d ........................................................139
tions of substances. Proportion answering at the age Centilitres 100% alcohol. (Table 53) Lifetime use of marijuana or hashish by country.
of 13 or younger. All countries average by gender. 1995–2011. Percentages. (Table 60)
2011. Percentages. (Tables 4, 24 and 39) Figure 23b ........................................................130
Estimated average alcohol consumption during the Figure 27a ........................................................140
Figure 19 ............................................................97 last alcohol drinking day among students report- Changes between 2007 and 2011 in the use of
Lifetime abstinence from various substances. All ing any last day alcohol consumption by gender. marijuana or hashish during the past 30 days. All
countries average by gender. 2011. 2007–2011. Averages for 26 countries. Centilitres students. Percentages. (Table 62)
100% alcohol. (Table 54–55)
Figure 20a ........................................................124 Figure 27b ........................................................140
Changes between 2007 and 2011 in cigarette use Figure 23c ........................................................131 Use of marijuana or hashish during the past 30
during the past 30 days. All students. Percentages. Estimated average alcohol consumption during the days. 1995-2011. Averages for all and for 18 coun-
(Table 43) last alcohol drinking day among students report- tries respectively. Percentages. (Table 62)
ing any last day alcohol consumption. 2007-2011.
Centilitres 100% alcohol. (Table 53)
Figure 20b ........................................................124 Figure 27c ........................................................140
Cigarette use during the past 30 days. 1995–2011. Use of marijuana or hashish during the past 30 days
Figure 24a ........................................................132
Averages for all and for 19 countries respectively. by gender. 1995-2011. Averages for 18 countries.
Changes between 2007 and 2011 in the propor-
Percentages. (Table 43) Percentages. (Table 62)
tion reporting having had five or more drinks on
one occasion during the past 30 days. All students.
Figure 20c ........................................................124 Figure 27d ........................................................141
Percentages. (Table 56)
Cigarette use during the past 30 days by gender. Use of marijuana or hashish during the past 30 days
1995–2011. Averages for 19 countries. Percentages. Figure 24b ........................................................132 by country. 1995–2011. Percentages. (Table 62)
(Table 43) Proportion reporting having had five or more
Figure 28a ........................................................142
drinks on one occasion during the past 30 days.
Figure 20d ........................................................125 1995–2011. Averages for all and for 14 countries Changes between 2007 and 2011 in lifetime use
Cigarette use during the past 30 days by country. respectively. Percentages. (Table 56) of illicit drugs other than marijuana or hashish . All
1995–2011. Percentages. (Table 43) students. Percentages. (Table 64)
Figure 24c ........................................................132
Figure 21a ........................................................126 Proportion reporting having had five or more drinks Figure 28b ........................................................142
Changes between 2007 and 2011 in use of any on one occasion during the past 30 days, by gender. Lifetime use of illicit drugs other than marijuana or
alcoholic beverage during the past 12 months. All 1995–2011. Averages for 14 countries. Percentages. hashish. 1995–2011. Averages for all and for 19
students. Percentages. (Table 46) (Table 56) countries respectively. Percentages. (Table 64)
The 2011 ESPAD Report 7
Contents
Figure 28c ........................................................142 Figure A1 ..........................................................154
Lifetime use of illicit drugs other than marijuana or Number of students born in 1995 in each country
hashish by gender. 1995–2011. Averages for 19 or region.
countries. Percentages. (Table 64)
Figure b1 ..........................................................159
Figure 28d ........................................................143 12-month prevalence of cannabis use across coun-
Lifetime use of illicit drugs other than marijuana tries.
or hashish by country. 1995–2011. Percentages.
(Table 64) Figure b2 ..........................................................159
Mean answers to CAST item 1 (use before midday).
Figure 29a ........................................................144
Changes between 2007 and 2011 in lifetime use of Figure b3 ..........................................................160
tranquillisers or sedatives without a doctor’s pre- Mean answers to CAST item 2 (use when alone).
scription. All students. Percentages. (Table 66)
Figure b4 ..........................................................160
Figure 29b ........................................................144 Mean answers to CAST item 3 (memory problems).
Lifetime use of tranquillisers or sedatives without
a doctor’s prescription. 1995–2011. Averages for Figure b5 ..........................................................160
all and for 19 countries respectively. Percentages. Mean answers to CAST item 4 (friends/family).
(Table 66)
Figure b6 ..........................................................160
Figure 29c ........................................................144 Mean answers to CAST item 5 (tried to reduce/stop).
Lifetime use of tranquillisers or sedatives without
a doctor’s prescription by gender. 1995–2011. Figure b7 ..........................................................160
Averages for 19 countries. Percentages. (Table 66) Mean answers to CAST item 6 (problems).
Figure 29d ........................................................145 Figure b8 ..........................................................160
Lifetime use of tranquillisers or sedatives without CAST sum scores for boys and girls.
a doctor’s prescription by country. 1995–2011.
Percentages. (Table 66) Figure b9 ..........................................................162
CAST sum score across countries.
Figure 30a ........................................................146
Changes between 2007 and 2011 in lifetime use of Figure b10 ........................................................162
inhalants. All students. Percentages. (Table 68) Proportion of high-risk users (reference group:
12-month users).
Figure 30b ........................................................146
Lifetime use of inhalants. 1995–2011. Averages for Figure b11 ........................................................162
all and for 17 countries respectively. Percentages. Proportion of high-risk users (reference group:
(Table 68) total sample).
Figure 30c ........................................................146 Figure C1 ..........................................................167
Lifetime use of inhalants by gender. 1995–2011. Trends in polydrug use by country. 2007–2011.
Averages for 17 countries. Percentages. (Table 68) Percentages.
Figure 30d ........................................................147 Figure C2 ..........................................................169
Lifetime use of inhalants by country. 1995–2007. Students engaged in deviant behaviours among
Percentages. (Table 68) nonpolydrug users and polydrug users of 2 and 3+
substances in 2011 (unweighted averages of per-
Figure 31a ........................................................148 centages in 29 countries).
Changes between 2007 and 2011 in cigarette use
during the last 30 days. All students. Percentages.
(Table 43)
Figure 31b ........................................................148
Lifetime abstinence from tobacco, alcohol, inhal-
ants, tranquillisers or sedatives without a doc-
tor’s prescription and illicit drugs. 1995–2011.
Averages for all and for 16 countries respectively.
Percentages. (Table 69)
Figure31c .........................................................148
Lifetime abstinence from tobacco, alcohol, inhal-
ants, tranquillisers or sedatives without a doctor’s
prescription and illicit drugs. 1995–2011. Averages
for 16 countries. Percentages. (Table 69)
Figure 31d ........................................................149
Lifetime abstinence from tobacco, alcohol, inhal-
ants, tranquillisers or sedatives without a doctor’s
prescription and illicit drugs by country. 1995–2011.
Percentages. (Table 69)
8 The 2011 ESPAD Report