100 years of superconductivity

866 Pages·2011·162.309 MB·English

by  Horst Rogalla

Rogalla
Physics
Kes
100 Years of
superconductivitY
Edited by
Horst Rogalla and Peter H. Kes
Even a hundred years after its discovery, superconductivity continues to bring us
new surprises, from superconducting magnets used in MRI to quantum detectors
s1
in electronics. 100 Years of Superconductivity presents a comprehensive 100 Years of
collection of topics on nearly all the subdisciplines of superconductivity. Tracing
0
u
the historical developments in superconductivity, the book includes contributions
from many pioneers who are responsible for important steps forward in the field. superconductivitY
0
p
The text first discusses interesting stories of the discovery and gradual progress e
of theory and experimentation. Emphasizing key developments in the early 1950s Y
and 1960s, the book looks at how superconductivity started to permeate society r
e
and how most of today’s applications are based on the innovations of those
c
years. It also explores the genuine revolution that occurred with the discovery of a
high temperature superconductors, leading to emerging applications in power
o
storage and fusion reactors. r
n
Features s
• Reviews the history of superconductivity, from the early years to the
d
experimental and theoretical progress in the 1950s and 1960s to the o
use of magnets in high energy physics and electronics in astronomy
u
• Includes contributions from those responsible for important steps f
forward in the field or who have worked closely with these leaders c
• Covers superconductor materials, including cuprates, Fe-pnictides, Fe-
chalcogenides, magnesium diboride, and strontium ruthenate t
• Describes applications of superconductors in mineral exploration,
i
nondestructive testing, quantum computing, digital electronics, space
v
telescopes, MEG, MRI, NMR, and much more
• Provides numerous figures, some in color, as well as further readings
i
in each chapter
t
Superconductivity has become a vast field and this full-color book shows how Y
far it has come in the past 100 years. Along with reviewing significant research
and experiments, leading scientists share their insight and experiences working
in this exciting and evolving area.
K12240
Edited by
ISBN: 978-1-4398-4946-0
90000 Horst Rogalla
Peter H. Kes
9 781439 849460
K12240_COVER_final.indd 1 9/12/11 3:22 PM
100 Years of
superconductivitY
TThhiiss ppaaggee iinntteennttiioonnaallllyy lleefftt bbllaannkk
100 Years of
superconductivitY
Edited by
Horst Rogalla and Peter H. Kes
CRC Press
Taylor & Francis Group
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Boca Raton, FL 33487-2742
© 2012 by Taylor & Francis Group, LLC
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Version Date: 20110811
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Contents
Preface xvii
ListofAuthors xix
Glossary xxv
1 EarlyHistory 1
Editor:PeterH.Kes
1.1 TheDiscoveryandEarlyHistoryofSuperconductivity
Rudolf de Bruyn Ouboter, Dirk van Delft and Peter H. Kes . . . . . . . . . 1
1.1.1 TheRealStory . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1
1.1.2 ElementalSuperconductors . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 15
1.1.3 SuperconductiveAlloys,theSpongyRoadtoTypeIISuperconductors. . . 24
1.2 TheHistoricalContextofJosephson’sDiscovery
A. B. Pippard . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 29
1.3 FurtherReading . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 50
2 Theory 51
Editor:JanZaanen
2.1 Ginzburg–LandauEquations
V. M. Vinokur and T. I. Baturina . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 51
2.1.1 Introduction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 51
2.1.2 AHistory . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 52
2.1.3 TheEquation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 53
2.1.4 ConsequencesandApplications . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 58
2.1.5 Conclusion:Strings,theUniverse,andAlltheRest... . . . . . . . . . . . . 64
2.2 TheEmergenceofBCS
David Pines . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 65
2.2.1 Introduction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 65
2.2.2 AWelcomingEnvironment . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 65
2.2.3 StartingWorkwithBardeen . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 66
2.2.4 PolaronTheory . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 67
2.2.5 EffectiveElectronInteractionsinMetals . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 67
2.2.6 Cooper’sPairInstability . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 68
2.2.7 SeattleandStockholm . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 69
2.2.8 TheSchriefferWave-Function . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 70
2.2.9 Deciphering,Teaching,andApplyingBCS . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 70
2.2.10 BCSTheory . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 71
2.3 TheoryofSuperconductivity:FromPhenomenologytoMicroscopicTheory
Lev P. Gor’kov . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 72
2.3.1 Introduction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 72
2.3.2 EarlyDays . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 73
2.3.3 The1950s . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 77
v
vi 100YearsofSuperconductivity
2.3.4 MicroscopicTheory . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 79
2.3.5 InsteadofConclusion . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 91
2.4 AModern,butWayTooShortHistoryoftheTheoryofSuperconductivityataHigh
Temperature
Jan Zaanen . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 92
2.4.1 Introduction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 92
2.4.2 PushingBCStotheLimits:TheSpinFluctuationSuperglue . . . . . . . . 94
2.4.3 TheLegacyofPhilipW.Anderson(I):Mottness . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 99
2.4.4 The Legacy of Philip W. Anderson (II): Resonating Valence Bonds and
TheirDescendants . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 100
2.4.5 TheorythatWorks:TheCompetingOrdersofthePseudogapRegime . . . 106
2.4.6 QuantumCriticalMetalsandSuperconductivity . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 110
2.5 IntrinsicJosephsonEffectinLayeredSuperconductors
L. N. Bulaevskii and A.E. Koshelev . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 115
2.5.1 Introduction:LayeredSuperconductorsandLawrence-DoniachModel . . . 115
2.5.2 VortexMatterinLayeredSuperconductors. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 118
2.5.3 JosephsonPlasmaResonance. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 122
2.5.4 RadiationfromIntrinsicJosephsonJunctions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 124
2.6 MixedStateProperties
Ernst Helmut Brandt . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 125
2.6.1 Introduction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 125
2.6.2 Abrikosov’sPeriodicVortexLatticeNearB . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 126
c2
2.6.3 DistortedVortexLatticeandVacancyNearB . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 127
c2
2.6.4 NonlocalElasticityoftheVortexLattice . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 129
2.6.5 VortexArrangementsatLowInductions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 131
2.6.6 VortexLatticeSolutionforAllκandB¯ . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 132
2.6.7 VortexMotion,Pinning,andThermalDepinning . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 135
2.6.8 AnisotropicSuperconductors . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 136
2.7 ThermomagneticEffectsintheMixedState
R. P. Huebener . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 137
3 Experiments 145
Editor:J.Mannhart
3.1 TunnelingandtheJosephsonEffect
John M. Rowell . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 145
3.1.1 TheJosephsonEffect . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 153
3.2 TheDiscoveryofFluxoidQuantization
Dietrich Einzel . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 161
3.2.1 Introduction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 161
3.2.2 TheoreticalFoundations . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 162
3.2.3 TheDoll-Na¨bauerExperiment . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 163
3.2.4 TheDeaver-FairbankExperiment . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 165
3.2.5 TheIBMConference1961 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 167
3.2.6 Post-1961 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 168
3.2.7 SummaryandConclusion . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 169
3.3 TheSearchforthePairingSymmetryintheHighTemperatureSuperconductors
Dale J. Van Harlingen . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 170
3.3.1 WhytheSymmetryIsImportant . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 171
3.3.2 DeterminingtheSymmetry . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 171
3.3.3 Samples . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 173
3.3.4 Parity . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 174
TableofContents vii
3.3.5 PenetrationDepth . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 174
3.3.6 ARPES . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 175
3.3.7 JosephsonInterferometry . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 177
3.3.8 Beyondd-WaveSymmetry . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 182
3.4 Half-IntegerFluxQuantizationinUnconventionalSuperconductors
C. C. Tsuei and J. R. Kirtley . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 182
3.4.1 TheDesignoftheTricrystalExperiments . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 183
3.4.2 DirectObservationoftheHalfFluxQuantization . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 187
3.4.3 ElucidationoftheNatureofHalfFluxQuantumEffect . . . . . . . . . . . 191
3.4.4 Universalityofthed PairState . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 192
x2−y2
3.4.5 Large-ScaleArraysoftheHalfFluxVortices . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 194
3.4.6 ConcludingRemarks . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 196
3.5 ElectricFieldEffectTuningofSuperconductivity
Jean-Marc Triscone and Marc Gabay . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 197
3.5.1 Preamble . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 197
3.5.2 Introduction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 197
3.5.3 ElectricFieldEffectinComplexOxides . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 197
3.5.4 ElectricFieldEffectinSuperconductors:PhysicsandLengthscales . . . . . 199
3.5.5 ThomasFermiScreeningandInterfaceQuality . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 201
3.5.6 FieldEffectSetupsinaNutshell . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 201
3.5.7 What’sNew? . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 203
3.5.8 Conclusions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 206
3.6 TheGrainBoundaryProblemofHigh-T Superconductors
c
J. Mannhart and D. Dimos . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 206
3.7 OverviewoftheExperimentalHistory,StatusandProspectsofHTS
M. R. Beasley . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 213
3.7.1 TheAllureofHighTemperatureSuperconductivity . . . . . . . . . . . . . 213
3.7.2 TheBroadSweepofHistory . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 213
3.7.3 FromOnnestoBednorzandMueller . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 215
3.7.4 AfterBednorzandMueller . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 218
3.7.5 ProspectsforHigherTemperatureSuperconductors . . . . . . . . . . . . . 219
3.8 VortexMatterinAnisotropicSuperconductors
Eli Zeldov . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 222
3.8.1 LocalMagnetizationandGeometricalBarriers . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 223
3.8.2 VortexLatticeMelting . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 225
3.8.3 VortexMatterPhaseDiagram . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 228
3.9 FurtherReading . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 231
4 Materials 233
Editor:C.W.Chu
4.1 Introduction
C. W. Chu . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 233
4.2 TheRoutetoHighTemperatureSuperconductivityinTransitionMetalOxides
A. Bussmann-Holder and K. A. Mu¨ller . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 234
4.3 Superconductivityabove10KinNon-CuprateOxides
David C. Johnston . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 239
4.3.1 Introduction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 239
4.3.2 LiTi O . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 240
2 4
4.3.3 Ba(Pb Bi )O . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 242
1−x x 3
4.3.4 (Ba K )BiO . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 244
1−x x 3
4.4 Cuprates—SuperconductorswithaT upto164K
c
viii 100YearsofSuperconductivity
C. W. Chu . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 244
4.4.1 RBa Cu O . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 245
2 3 7
4.4.2 Bi2Sr2Can−1CunO2n+4 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 250
4.4.3 Tl2Ba2Can−1CunO2n+4 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 252
4.4.4 HgBa2Can−1CunO2n+3−δ . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 253
4.5 Fe-Pnictidesand-Chalcogenides
Hideo Hosono . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 255
4.5.1 ResearchLedtoDiscoveryofIron-BasedSuperconductors . . . . . . . . . 255
4.5.2 DiscoveryofIron-basedSuperconductors . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 257
4.5.3 AdvancesinMaterials . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 260
4.5.4 CurrentStatus . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 262
4.5.5 Perspective . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 263
4.6 SuperconductivityinMgB
2
Takahiro Muranaka and Jun Akimitsu . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 265
4.6.1 Introduction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 265
4.6.2 CrystalStructureofMgB . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 266
2
4.6.3 ElectronicStructureofMgB . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 268
2
4.6.4 Two-gapSuperconductingStateofMgB . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 270
2
4.6.5 Conclusion . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 271
4.7 Fullerenes
Kosmas Prassides and Matthew J. Rosseinsky . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 272
4.7.1 AlkaliFullerideSuperconductors. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 272
4.7.2 FullerideswithIncreasedInterfullereneSeparations . . . . . . . . . . . . . 274
4.7.3 Cs C —FullereneSuperconductivityReborn . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 275
3 60
4.8 ElementalSuperconductors
K. Shimizu . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 278
4.8.1 PeriodicTableforSuperconductingElements . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 279
4.8.2 ExperimentalTechnique . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 280
4.8.3 ExampleofPressure-InducedSuperconductivityinElements . . . . . . . . 280
4.8.4 Summary:3DPeriodicTableforSuperconductingElements . . . . . . . . 282
4.9 Heavy-FermionSuperconductivity
F. Steglich . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 283
4.10 RuthenateSuperconductorSr RuO
2 4
Yoshiteru Maeno . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 288
4.10.1 SameCrystalStructurebutDifferentUnconventionalSuperconductivity . . 290
4.10.2 NovelSuperconductingPhenomena . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 292
4.11 Magnetic Superconductors (and Some Recollections of Professor Bernd T.
Matthias)
M. Brian Maple . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 293
4.11.1 Introduction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 293
4.11.2 LocalizedMagneticMomentsinConventionalSuperconductors . . . . . . 294
4.11.3 CoexistenceofSuperconductivityandMagneticOrderInvolvingtheSame
SetofElectrons . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 299
4.11.4 SomeThoughtsaboutHighTemperatureSuperconductors . . . . . . . . . 304
4.11.5 SomePersonalRecollectionsofProfessorBerndT.Matthias . . . . . . . . 305
4.12 FurtherReading . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 307
5 SQUIDsandDetectors 311
Editor:A.I.Braginski
5.1 Introduction
John Clarke, Arnold Silver and A. I. Braginski . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 311
TableofContents ix
5.2 HistoryandDeviceFundamentals
John Clarke and Arnold Silver . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 313
5.2.1 InitialDiscovery . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 313
5.2.2 Thin-FilmJosephsonTunnel-JunctionQuantumInterferometer . . . . . . . 315
5.2.3 PointContactDevices—dcSQUID . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 317
5.2.4 TherfSQUID . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 318
5.2.5 LinearSQUIDResponseandSingleFluxQuantumTransitions . . . . . . . 320
5.2.6 R-SQUID,OscillatorsandDetectors . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 320
5.2.7 SLUGsatCambridge . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 321
5.2.8 SQUIDsatBerkeley . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 324
5.2.9 TheSquareWasherSQUID . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 326
5.2.10 TherfSQUIDRevisited . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 327
5.2.11 Today’sSQUIDs . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 327
5.3 High-T SQUIDs
c
A. I. Braginski . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 328
5.3.1 PastandPresent . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 328
5.3.2 High-T SQUIDLimitsofPerformance . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 330
c
5.4 GeophysicalApplicationsofSQUIDs
C. P. Foley . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 331
5.4.1 Introduction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 331
5.4.2 MagneticMeasurementsUsedinGeophysicalProspecting . . . . . . . . . 332
5.4.3 EarlySQUIDsinGeophysicalProspecting. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 333
5.4.4 TransientElectroMagneticsUsingHigh-T SQUIDs . . . . . . . . . . . . 335
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5.4.5 TensorGradiometry. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 338
5.4.6 LaboratorySystems . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 339
5.4.7 FinalComments . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 340
5.5 ApplicationtoNondestructiveEvaluationofMaterialsandStructures
A. I. Braginski . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 342
5.5.1 PastandPresent . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 342
5.5.2 NDETestingMethodsUsingSQUIDs . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 344
5.5.3 BridgeTesting . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 344
5.5.4 AirplaneTesting . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 346
5.5.5 TwoExamplesofSQUIDNDENowintheField . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 346
5.5.6 SQUIDNDEMicroscopyinSemiconductorTechnology . . . . . . . . . . 348
5.5.7 ConcludingRemark. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 349
5.6 SQUIDs—fromLaboratoryDevicestoCommercialProducts
Ronald E. Sager . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 349
5.6.1 EarlySQUIDsasLaboratoryDevices . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 349
5.6.2 FirstCommercializationofSQUIDs . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 350
5.6.3 SHE—EarlySQUIDInstrumentation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 351
5.6.4 QuantumDesign—AdvancedSQUIDInstruments . . . . . . . . . . . . . 353
5.6.5 TheMarketforSQUID-basedInstrumentsToday . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 356
5.6.6 FutureDirectionsforSQUIDsinLaboratoryInstrumentation . . . . . . . . 356
5.7 ElectromagneticandParticleDetectionandReadout
John Clarke, Kent Irwin and Peter Michelson . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 358
5.7.1 DCSQUIDAmplifiers . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 358
5.7.2 TransitionEdgeSensors . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 361
5.7.3 PhotonEnergyResolvingDetectors . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 362
5.7.4 X-RayAstronomyandMaterialsAnalysis . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 363
5.7.5 DarkEnergyandColdDarkMatter . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 364
5.7.6 DarkEnergy:SearchingforGalaxyClusters . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 366