Workshop Draft 1 Prepared for the NYU Next Generation Antitrust Workshop, Jan. 2010 Please do not cite or quote. Comments welcome (see n. *) Behavioral Exploitation and Antitrust Max Huffman* The assumptions underlying antitrust economics are wrong.1 This paper explores what that reality – increasingly not subject to cavil – means for antitrust law. The paper explores in particular the reality in many marketplaces of the relationship between sophisticated producers and naïve consumers. I. Introduction Antitrust has been called a branch of applied economics.2 Certainly since the 1960s when lawyers and economists joined forces to bring more analytical rigor to the wild west of antitrust, courts, commentators and policy‐makers have embraced, nearly wholesale, the understanding that economic analysis controls the rules of decision in the field.3 Under the leading branch of economic thought – “neo‐classical economics” – the rules that control are reasonable and predictable and err on the side of false acquittals rather than false convictions. The fundamental axiom of antitrust economics is that actors on the economic stage act “rationally” – here, shorthand for the three assumptions of rationality, unlimited willpower and unlimited self‐interest.4 It is commonly believed that antitrust economics is robust and mature in the U.S. system. A. The New New Antitrust Economics But a parallel branch of economics – behavioral economics – presents a challenge to neo‐classical theories. Its adherents include Nobel Prize winners; business and marketing professors; notable economists, some converts from rational choice * Associate Professor, IU School of Law – Indianapolis. Comments are solicited at [email protected] or 317‐274‐8009. 1 “One thing is clear to me: the orthodox and unvarnished Chicago School of economic theory is on life support, if it is not dead.” FTC Comm’r J. Thomas Rosch, Interview, 23 Antitrust 32, __ (2009). Cf. Honorable v. Easy Life Real Estate System, 100 F. Supp. 2d 885, 888‐89 (N.D. Ill. 2000) (“More deeply, the economic theories that imply that market prices are efficient, thus beneficial for consumers, presuppose that consumers are informed, markets are competitive, and the costs of making transactions are not excessively burdensome. To produce theoretical equilibrium, neoclassical economics in fact assumes perfect information, perfect competition, and no transaction costs, among other idealizations. But these assumptions must be relaxed, and perhaps, ultimately replaced, if economic theory is to have any application to what happens in actual markets.”). 2 Posner. 3 Pitofsky, Lande, Posner; Alan Devlin, Antitrust in an Era of Market Failure, Draft at 20 (forthcoming Harv. J. L. & Pub. Pol’y 2010), available at ssrn.com/abstract=1429539. 4 Sunstein, Jolls, Thaler. Workshop Draft 2 Prepared for the NYU Next Generation Antitrust Workshop, Jan. 2010 Please do not cite or quote. Comments welcome (see n. *) theory; law professors; and popular authors.5 Combining the studies of psychology with economic tools, these so‐called “behavioralists” have challenged the assumptions that underlie economic proofs, themselves justifications for legal standards and rules. In 1998 legal academics learned that “’real people’ differ from homo economicus” by displaying “three important ‘bounds’ on human behavior, bounds that draw into question the central ideas of utility maximization, stable preferences, rational expectations, and optimal processing of information” underlying neo‐classical economics.6 Behavioral economics operates by collecting data, whether from experiments conducted in the laboratory or from the real world, and testing the axioms of economics against that data.7 Frequently the data demonstrates the axioms are wrong. Behavioral law and economics then reexamines governing legal rules in light of the new understanding. We have reached that point in antitrust. The analytical rigor of the past four decades of antitrust economics has brought much needed certainty to the discipline. 8But behavioral economics is teaching that parties in the economic marketplace are not rational, or at least not equivalently rational. Proofs based on false axioms are suspect. Legal standards and rules of decision dependant on those proofs need revisiting. Scholars are recently beginning to do just that.9 Maurice Stucke is one of the early appliers of behavioralist teachings to antitrust law.10 He has argued about the inevitability of courts’ rethinking of antitrust law in light of knowledge of human conduct in the economic marketplace. The economic marketplace is characterized by myriad individual transactions between consumers and producers. Those transactions tend to be atomistic relative to the aggregate of economic activity in any one industry. Each individual transaction contributes to the aggregate of economic activity. In each individual transaction, the parties engage in zero‐sum bargaining over surplus welfare.11 The outcome of the transaction impacts the parties, who are 5 For a list of sources, see Maurice E. Stucke, Money, Is That What I Want?, n.58 (forthcoming 2010). See also generally Cass R. Sunstein, ed., Behavioral Law and Economics (2000). 6 Sunstein, Jolls, Thaler. 7 See Stucke, Money, Is that What I Want?, Draft at 26‐27 (experiments began on university students and migrated to “field experiments and data from actual market transactions”). 8 Schmalensee, Thoughts on the Chicago Legacy in Antitrust, in How the Chicago School Overshot the Mark (Pitofsky, ed., 2008). 9 Stucke, Tor & Rinner; Bruttel & Glockner, Predatory Pricing, Recoupment, and Consumers’ Reaction, Thurgau Institute of Economics, Univ. of Konstanz Research Paper Series (Dec. 2, 2009). 10 Behavioralists at the Gate, Money, is that what I want?, etc. 11 Surplus welfare is the amount the consumer is willing to spend in excess of the cost of production for the producer. Hylton. The bargaining in an individual transaction is zero‐sum because it is static Workshop Draft 3 Prepared for the NYU Next Generation Antitrust Workshop, Jan. 2010 Please do not cite or quote. Comments welcome (see n. *) bound contractually to the transaction terms reached. It also impacts the parties’ immediate competitors, who are excluded from the particular transaction once it is concluded.12 If the transaction is large enough, it has the potential to impact the market more broadly, producing what is called an effect on “competition.”13 The outcome of the bargaining depends on the parties’ relative bargaining positions. Part of bargaining position is an ability to act rationally to maximize one’s own welfare.14 This question was ignored, in antitrust, until recently. But parties’ rationality or lack thereof is an important element of the equation. The axioms of antitrust economics have assumed the economic marketplace can be modeled with perfect rationality on the part of both producers and consumers.15 In contrast with those assumptions, research by Stucke, Avishalom Tor and William Rinner has challenged the assumption that producers are rational.16 B. Behavioral Exploitation This paper builds on the premise that the marketplace is best understood as being peopled by rational producers and irrational consumers. It analyzes the leading antitrust rules in the light of that premise. The dominant characteristic of transactions in markets where individual end‐user consumers deal directly with merchants in consumer goods transactions is the disparity in sophistication between the parties to the transaction. “Merchants” are by common definition repeat players who are educated in the products and services they sell and in the legal rules and market norms governing the transaction.17 “Consumers,” although the term is not by dictionary definition so limited, normally connotes unsophisticated individual end user consumers. 18 That is how I use the term. in nature and does not have the capacity to shift the supply or demand curves in a way that increases aggregate welfare. 12 This sort of exclusion is in itself not an antitrust harm. Barry Wright Corp. v. ITT Grinnell Corp., 724 F.2d 227, 236 (1st Cir. 1983) (“virtually every contract to buy ‘forecloses’ or ‘excludes’ alternative sellers from some portion of the market”). 13 This might occur if the transaction is a long‐term supply contract. See, e.g., NicSand Inc. v. 3M Co., 507 F.3d 442, 452‐53 (6th Cir. 2007) (allegations by plaintiff that defendant monopolized the market by entering into long term contracts with retailers). 14 Cf. Rest. (2d) Contracts § 14 (contract with infant voidable by infant); id. § 15 (contract voidable by mentally incapacitated party under certain circumstances). 15 Devlin, Market Failure, supra, Draft at 48. 16 Behavioral economists at the Gate, Tor recent article. 17 See Unif. Comm. Code § 2‐104(1) (2002) (definition of “merchant”). 18 Huffman, European Competition Journal (forthcoming 2010). But see Robert Lande, Comments, in Section 5 FTC Act Blog Symposium (Jan. 7, 2010), available at lawprofessors.typepad.com/antitrustprof_blog/2010/01/section‐5‐ftc‐act‐blog‐symposium‐ comments‐of‐bob‐lande.html (visited Jan. 2010). Workshop Draft 4 Prepared for the NYU Next Generation Antitrust Workshop, Jan. 2010 Please do not cite or quote. Comments welcome (see n. *) The disparity in sophistication offers two obvious avenues by which the merchant can take advantage of the consumer, causing direct consumer harm. The first is simple deception. It has long been understood that the profit maximizing approach for a merchant is to engage in some optimal level of deceptive conduct.19 What that optimal level is depends on (1) how effectively the merchant can get away with it (whether it can be discovered), and (2) whether the merchant needs to get away with it (whether the merchant hopes for repeat business from the consumer). The first of those conditions is met in the context of the typical merchant‐consumer transaction, as sophisticated merchants are able to hide their deception from unsophisticated consumers.20 The second will be met in many transactions, where the merchant enjoys monopoly power as well as – counterintuitively – where the merchant is in perfect competition. Of course, deception is prohibited at common law and by federal and state statutes.21 There is another class of conduct, not prohibited at common law or by statute (although it is regulated at the margins), which I call “behavioral exploitation.”22 Behavioral exploitation is intentionally exploiting known biases in consumer decision‐making, causing the consumer to enter into a transaction he or she would eschew but for the conduct. The theoretical argument for there being an optimal amount of deception applies equally to behavioral exploitation: so long as it is difficult to discover or the merchant does not rely on the consumer’s repeat business, behavioral exploitation is a rational business strategy. Unlike deception, behavioral exploitation is not impermissible under any legal scheme, with the exception of marginal regulation targeting specific sorts of transactions.23 In the cases of both deception and behavioral exploitation, allocative efficiency is disturbed as consumers are induced to enter transactions they would otherwise eschew. Resources flow to consumers’ apparent, rather than actual, preferences. Aggregate welfare is diminished. Deceptive and behaviorally exploitative conduct might well enable a merchant to gain or to preserve a competitive advantage over a rival. They thus raise concerns for monopolization under Section Two of the Sherman Act. It is also possible to articulate theories of harm based on concerted deception or exploitation by more than one firm. That may be pursuant to an agreement or through the process of tacit collusion. C. Plan for Discussion 19 Darby & Karni, Free Competition and the Optimal Amount of Fraud, 16 J. L. & Econ. 67 (1973); Posner, Regulation of Advertising by the FTC (1973). 20 Darby & Karni, supra, at __ (giving the example of auto mechanic services). 21 See 15 U.S.C. § 45 (FTC Act § 5) (outlawing “unfair or deceptive acts or practices”). 22 See Max Huffman, ECJ (forthcoming 2010). 23 See, e.g., 16 C.F.R. Part 238 (bait‐and‐switch sales techniques); 16 C.F.R. Part 251 (guide concerning use of the word “free” and similar representations). Workshop Draft 5 Prepared for the NYU Next Generation Antitrust Workshop, Jan. 2010 Please do not cite or quote. Comments welcome (see n. *) Part II further explores the question of the correct model for the economic marketplace. It shows how the great weight of antitrust scholarship and leading antitrust caselaw has employed axioms relying on assumptions that all economic actors are rational. The Part considers those assumptions in the context of the two primary antitrust standards: standards governing concerted conduct under Section One of the Sherman Act and standards governing unilateral conduct under Section Two of the Sherman Act. Together with this discussion the part examines the scholarship analyzing other industry models, showing how recent work has criticized the leading theory and analyzed industry models involving boundedly rational producers. Part III begins by explaining why this author believes a model with rational producers and irrational consumers is the most appropriate model for many industries. It describes the marketplace in light of the assumptions of rational producers and irrational consumers. Part III turns to the behavioral exploitation theory of harm. It discusses the two primary antitrust standards – unilateral conduct and concerted conduct – in light of the new theory. Recognizing that behavioral exploitation as a theory of liability threatens expansive litigation and liability, particularly from private enforcement, the part suggests limiting principles to cabin the claim. Part IV discusses caselaw and agency analyses that have relied on more realistic assumptions about consumer conduct. It shows how those cases and analyses anticipate the revolution in antitrust economics that is happening in legal scholarship only now. The Part shows how those opinions are consistent with the assumptions favored here. Part V concludes. II. Modeling the Marketplace A. Who is Rational? Atomistic relationships between producers and consumers underlie much of the market dynamics that are the subject of antitrust analysis. Examining those relationships individually tells the story of market power and the consequent ability of one party, or a combination of parties, to influence price, quantity, quality and choice for consumers.24 At the level of the individual transaction, the story being told is one of bargaining power. Bargaining power, in turn, is a question of the relative positions of the parties to the transaction. An important part of the bargaining power story is that of the parties’ ability to act rationally – defined here as having infinite faculties for reasoning, will‐power and self interest.25 24 Huffman (ECJ 2010) defines consumer welfare in these terms. 25 Cite to introduction, supra. Workshop Draft 6 Prepared for the NYU Next Generation Antitrust Workshop, Jan. 2010 Please do not cite or quote. Comments welcome (see n. *) It is convenient to break down transactions according to the relative rationality of the parties to those transactions. Traditional antitrust economics assumes perfect rationality on the part of all players. Recent work addresses the circumstance of producer irrationality. It is also valuable to consider the possibility that consumers will be irrational. Which description applies – rationality all around, irrational producers with rational consumers, rational producers with irrational consumers, or irrationality all around – is a question of the parties’ relative sophistication with regard to the transaction. Different industries will have different realities with regard to the sophistication of the parties to transactions. Determining the appropriate model for an industry is a question of developing and maintaining a robust understanding of the characteristics of the marketplace. That understanding must then be imported into the rules of decision with regard to the industry in question. The process of development and importation can be accomplished in one of four ways. First is through the legislative process. Second is through the common law process. Third is through informal experience acquired and applied by antitrust enforcers, most notably the federal enforcement agencies. Fourth is through formal industry studies conducted by the enforcement agencies or academics. 1. Legislating the Industry Model The legislative process is easily justifiable if the development and the importation of an understanding of the characteristics of the marketplace is believed functionally to amend the antitrust laws. This paper argues that transactions in industries in which producers exhibit greater sophistication than do consumers – primarily consumer goods industries – may give rise to antitrust liability through a process of behavioral exploitation. Behavioral exploitation is impossible where consumers are rational, and unlikely where producers do not exhibit greater rationality than do consumers. This theory of liability thus might be thought to represent a different antitrust standard for consumer goods industries. An amendment to the antitrust laws specific to consumer goods industries might be an appropriate way to accomplish such a change. But legislative change is the least appropriate way to import new economic learning into antitrust. The history of legislating changes in antitrust law is checkered. One example of a legislative effort that failed, the Foreign Trade Antitrust Improvements Act,26 offers a warning that Congress acts ham‐handedly in trying to create special rules for particular economic sectors. Common law analysis is a more effective tool for targeted change than is legislation. 2. Establishing an Industry Model through the Common Law 26 Huffman, Twenty‐Five Years. Workshop Draft 7 Prepared for the NYU Next Generation Antitrust Workshop, Jan. 2010 Please do not cite or quote. Comments welcome (see n. *) The common law has been the preferred method of advancing antitrust thinking over the 120 years of the Sherman Act’s life.27 Courts have proved themselves able to comprehend and import marketplace realities into antitrust rules of decision in a manner consistent with the approach advocated in this article.28 According to the Supreme Court in Eastman Kodak v. Image Technical Services, the “Court has preferred to resolve antitrust claims on a case‐by‐case basis, focusing on the ‘particular facts disclosed by the record.’”29 Such case‐by‐case adjudication would permit courts to develop an understanding of industry specifics and allow adjustment of the rules of decision on the basis of the most appropriate model for the industry in question. The common law is a more effective approach than is legislation to determining and importing into the rules of decision the realities of the relative rationality of the parties in a particular economic sector. It is more flexible and less likely to be influenced by short‐term political interests. But the common law is not either a panacea for the problem of economic reasoning unhinged from reality. The common law is arguably slower than the legislative process, if only because rules developed through case‐by‐case adjudication are less sweeping in their application than are rules imposed by legislation. The quality of common law rules is limited by the experience of the judge and the capability of the advocates. 30 There is a danger that poorly litigated cases will result in bad law. 3. Informal Agency Analysis The third approach to determining the correct model for a particular industry is informal agency analysis. This approach relies on industry expertise reposed in enforcement staff and management. This approach most closely describes the process by which true facts are used to inform economic analysis in antitrust law in the United States today. Agency understanding of industry conduct is enhanced through years of experience and investigations, relying on the Civil Investigative Demand procedure or (in the case of the FTC) special statutory power to conduct investigations for informational, rather than enforcement, purposes.31 That 27 Huffman, Twenty‐Five Years; Huffman, Standing. 28 Eastman Kodak v. Image Technical Services. 29 Eastman Kodak, 504 U.S. 451, __ (1992). 30 Stucke points out that “The Supreme Court and the lower courts have not undertaken such empirical testing. Nor can they. Their view is limited to the evidence the parties supply; nor do the courts unilaterally revisit that industry to assess the effects of their decision.” Stucke, New Antitrust Realism at 11. It may be possible to quibble with those assertions. Empirical analysis certainly can be presented to the courts in the form of expert reports, the contents of which can be guided by courts through signaling their thinking to the parties. For example, a savvy judge might suggest at the discovery conference that evidence of marketplace realities would be highly relevant to a decision on summary judgment. Courts are also empowered to retain neutral experts over which they have greater control. 31 15 U.S.C. § 46. Workshop Draft 8 Prepared for the NYU Next Generation Antitrust Workshop, Jan. 2010 Please do not cite or quote. Comments welcome (see n. *) understanding informs not just arguments made in litigation, but decisions whether to litigate at all, in the exercise of the agencies’ prosecutorial discretion. Informal agency analysis is superior to either legislation or common law development. It is more flexible than either. It is readily updated with current information about an industry. Informal agency analysis is expertised in nature. That expertise derives from agency staff’s experience in the industry and in antitrust enforcement generally. It also derives from agency staff’s access to detailed and accurate industry information, including confidential information, and economic expertise in the form of consultants and agency economists. But limitations do exist on the reliance on informal agency analysis in importing marketplace realities into antitrust standards and rules of decision. One is that agencies are subject to political capture. Another is that informal analysis is ad hoc in nature. A third is that agencies’ enforcement of the antitrust laws is only as effective as are the decisions by courts who decide cases the agencies bring. Finally, informal agency analysis is generally unavailable to non‐agency enforcers.32 4. Formal Industry Reports Perhaps the most promising approach to importing the realities of the marketplace into antitrust standards and rules of decision is through the process of compiling formal industry reports, most likely by enforcement agencies. 33 The formal report process has precedent. The UK Office of Fair Trading (OFT) has compiled reports on industries through a collaborative process involving the agency’s competition law (antitrust) enforcers and its consumer protection enforcers.34 The Federal Trade Commission has used its statutory authority to gather general industry information better to understand the marketplace realities in markets including light petroleum products and optometry services.35 The Justice Department has not engaged in this process, but might be permitted to do so using material gathered through investigations using the CID or Grand Jury processes.36 3232 Exceptions to this are (1) the ability of private plaintiffs to bring follow‐on actions after an agency prosecution, 15 U.S.C. § __ (Tunney Act), and (2) the ability of states to access investigative materials compiled by the agencies, 15 U.S.C. § __ (Clayton Act). 33 Stucke argues academics and private practitioners will not be effective in accomplishing this process because of the inability to access confidential information and the burden of collecting the diffuse information successfully to produce a helpful study. Stucke, New Antitrust Realism at 11. 34 OFT White Paper, Huffman (ECJ) 2010. 35 15 U.S.C. § 46 (FTC Act § 6). See, e.g., Report of the Federal Trade Commission on Activities in the Oil and Natural Gas Industries, July‐December 2009, available at http://www.ftc.gov/ftc/oilgas/competn_reports.htm (visited Jan. 2010). Section 6 of the FTC Act is an answer to Stucke’s concern for inadequate “subpoena power for such post‐merger review.” Behavioral Economists at 578, 579. 36 A dated example exists of DOJ reliance on data compiled by the Temporary National Economic Committee with regard to the state of competition in various industries. Stucke, New Antitrust Realism at 12. Workshop Draft 9 Prepared for the NYU Next Generation Antitrust Workshop, Jan. 2010 Please do not cite or quote. Comments welcome (see n. *) One recent suggestion for ex‐post analysis of merger decisions is of a kind with the kind of report I describe here.37 The merger retrospective may serve the purpose of educating courts and enforcers as to the model under which to analyze competitive conduct in a particular marketplace. But relying on merger retrospectives has the failing of making the report depend on the pace of merger activity in the industry. Such industry reports would be made publicly available. They presumably would be given the weight that scholarly writing is given when cited in a litigation setting (although in litigation with that agency as a party they may be seen as self‐serving). Antitrust law boasts a long history of court reliance on scholarly analysis of economic and social facts.38 The greatest concern with formal industry reports prepared by agencies is the certainty of political interference in the process, including both the decision whether to produce a report and the nature of the report that is produced. The Department of Justice is famously subject to political influence.39 Although the FTC, an independent agency, tends to be thought of as more insulated, recent overtly political chairmen including Deborah Platt‐Majoras (Republican) and Jon Liebowitz (Democrat) undermine that conclusion. And while DOJ, as an executive agency, is subject to interference by that branch of government, the FTC is subject to interference by the more populist Senate. No one process is perfect, but three of the four – common law decisions, informal agency analyses and formal agency reports – are worth pursuing in the effort better to appreciate the model for any particular industry. The approaches can work in tandem. More effort to develop the last approach is warranted. B. Perfect Rationality All Around Antitrust scholarship and decisions have over several decades explored the industry model defined by perfect rationality. This sub‐part summarizes their teachings and the recent critique. I analyze the two main antitrust prohibitions: unilateral conduct and concerted conduct.40 I also address the question of merger review. The leading assumption of antitrust economics is that both consumers and producers act rationally in pursuit of their own best interests. In a marketplace so operative, consumers make decisions that reveal their preferences for goods or services. Resources flow to the uses that consumers value the highest. As 37 Stucke, New Antitrust Realism, Global Competition Policy (2009). 38 See, e.g., Chicago Board of Trade. 39 Huffman, Review of Broken Trusts (“tragedy of executive enforcement of the antitrust laws”). 40 This division is common in recent scholarship. See Stucke, Behavioral Economists at the Gate 536, Anderson & Huffman (2010). Merger policy, while an analytically different field, properly is understood as a specific application of the analyses of unilateral and concerted conduct. Workshop Draft 10 Prepared for the NYU Next Generation Antitrust Workshop, Jan. 2010 Please do not cite or quote. Comments welcome (see n. *) consumers’ preferences change, so does the flow of resources, as entrepreneurs seek to arbitrage the difference between the cost of production and consumers’ willingness to pay. The function of economics in developing legal standards and rules of decision is twofold. On the one hand, courts call on economics to explain observed facts when a violation is being proved circumstantially. On the other hand, courts use economics to predict likely future conduct.41 Those uses of economic expertise play out differently under various theories of antitrust liability. This section uses Supreme Court authorities decided since the neo‐classical revolution in the 1970s to illustrate the Court’s reliance on the rationality assumption under three representative enforcement theories: concerted conduct, unilateral conduct and the incipiency standard. 1. Concerted Conduct Section One of the Sherman Act outlaws contracts, combinations or conspiracies in restraint of trade.42 The claim is comprised of two elements: an agreement and an unreasonable restraint. 43 The use of economic expertise and the universal rationality assumption is important with regard to each of the elements. a. Agreement. The element of agreement can be proved through direct evidence or circumstantial evidence.44 Direct evidence of agreement exists where one member confesses to the conduct or where the agreement is observed.45 Direct evidence of agreement is analytically simple to understand, even if in practice difficult to obtain. Where one part admits to conspiring, or where a credible witness testifies to having observed the conspiracy, or where documentary or electronic evidence of the conspiracy is available, no economic evidence should be necessary or helpful to understand the meaning of the observed facts.46 Circumstantial evidence of agreement exists where conduct that is observed could not have occurred but for the existence of an agreement. The Supreme Court recently noted in Bell Atlantic Corp. v. Twombly that a historically unprecedented 41 Page & Lopatka on Expert Testimony in Cornell J. L. & Pol’y. 42 15 U.S.C. § 1. 43 Anderson & Huffman 2010. 44 Anderson & Huffman 2010. 45 Examples of both are available from recent Section One investigations and prosecutions. The vitamins cartel was uncovered when one member of the cartel confessed under DOJ’s amnesty program. The lysine cartel was uncovered when confidential informant Mark Whitacre videotaped a meeting of cartel members. 46 See Stucke, Behavioral Economists at the Gate 557 (“You can’t catch a thief with an economist” quote).
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