Zoo and Aquarium History: Ancient Animal Collections To Zoological Gardens

440 Pages·2000·9.64 MB·English

by  Vernon N. Kisling

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ZOO and
AQUARIUM
HISTORY
Ancient Animal
Collections to
Zoological Gardens
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CAT#2100 Title Page 28/11/01 1:21 PM Page 1
ZOO and
AQUARIUM
HISTORY
Ancient Animal
Collections to
Zoological Gardens
Edited by
Vernon N. Kisling, Jr.
CRC PR ESS
Boca Raton London New York Washington, D.C.
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COVER PHOTOGRAPHS
Background Photograph: African Panorama exhibit at Hagenbeck’s Tierpark, Stellingen (Hamburg), Germany. Panorama
exhibits revolutionized the exhibition of animals during the twentieth century (see Chapter 3). (Photograph by Harro Strehlow.)
Front Cover: Camel exhibit during the mid-1920s at Ueno Zoo, Tokyo, Japan (see Chapter 9). (Photograph courtesy of
Ueno Zoo.)
Back Cover:
Upper Left: Heron painted as an illustration for the Indian Natural History Project, from a specimen at the Barrackpore
menagerie, Calcutta, India, early to mid-1800s (see Chapter 8). (© The British Library.)
Lower Right: Tiger painted from a specimen in the Raja Serfagee menagerie (early to mid-1880s), the precursor to the
Shivaganga Gardens Zoo, Tamil Nadu, India. From the Raja Serfagee Collection (see Chapter 8). (© The British Library.)
Library of Congress Cataloging-in-Publication Data
Zoo and aquarium history : ancient animal collections to zoological gardens / edited by
Vernon N. Kisling, Jr.
p. cm.
Includes bibliographical references (p.).
ISBN 0-8493-2100-x
1. Zoos—History. 2. Menageries—History. 3. Aquariums, Public—History. I. Kisling,
Vernon N.
QL76 .Z727 2000
590′.7′309—dc21 00-030362
CIP
This book contains information obtained from authentic and highly regarded sources. Reprinted material is quoted with
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Preface
History is a human invention, so it tends to have an anthropocentric perspective that excludes
other species. As historian Max Oelschlaeger points out, “The wild plants and animals, the
web of life with which our humanity is bound, and without which the human drama could
not be enacted, become bit players.”1 This history of zoos and aquariums is about some of
those bit players and the forgotten roles they have played in our human drama. Much of our
past has been an integral part of nature: our response to environmental changes, our need
for natural resources, and our need for suitable land have influenced past social, economic,
and political activities usually considered strictly human endeavors. Animals and plants have
been significant parts of this history, but they are often overlooked, or, if mentioned, their
importance has not been fully appreciated. Animals have been important for many reasons,
particularly in the past when our survival depended upon them. This history, however, is
about animals as nonutilitarian resources, about animals maintained in collections for many
reasons throughout the past 5,000 years — as symbols of power and prestige, as luxury and
diplomatic gifts, as objects of personal pleasure, for recreational use, for educational purposes,
to increase zoological knowledge, and for conservation purposes.
Animal collections of the past especially (but even modern zoos and aquariums) have not
been well studied. Although the published information may be sufficient for an overview, it
does not provide an in-depth understanding of these collections and the many facets of their
complex evolution. Interestingly, more research has been undertaken on the history of botanical
gardens, natural history museums, and circuses. There are journals specifically devoted to the
history of these institutions, as well as numerous books and academic studies. In comparison,
very little widely distributed, easily accessible information has been published on the history
of zoos and aquariums — no journals, few books, few academic studies.
To conduct original research, one must still visit zoos and aquariums to find the necessary
historical material. And even if the researcher does this, the material is often minimal or is no
longer at the institution. It may be in municipal archives or in regional historical society
archives. Very often, it no longer exists because it was thrown out or destroyed to make room
for new paperwork. Just trying to determine the year of establishment of an institution can be
difficult. Zoo and aquarium personnel often do not know where to look for historical infor-
mation, letters of inquiry go unanswered, and there is no consensus on what criteria should
be used to establish this date (often there is an “official” opening, but other criteria are also
used, such as when the first animals were acquired).
Most zoo and aquarium histories are institutional ones with limited distribution. Relatively
comprehensive histories have occasionally been published, but they have had limited distribu-
tion and use. Most are now out of print, so copies are difficult to find.2–7 A more comprehensive
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history of the world’s zoos and aquariums from ancient times to the present has been a needed,
but daunting, task. Historical research on zoos and aquariums is still at a rudimentary stage,
with much of it concerned with basic information: what collections existed, when were they
established, when were the structures built, how were they managed, who managed them, and
what animals were collected. Nevertheless, more in-depth, analytical studies are now examining
the cultural, institutional, and environmental context of zoos and aquariums. So the time is
ripe for a comprehensive review of what is known about zoos and aquariums, one that provides
an introduction to the subject and also highlights the published and archival resources for
those who want to know more.
It is doubtful that a single individual could compile a comprehensive worldwide history of
zoos and aquariums. To overcome the diversity of languages involved with such a task, to gain
access to the regional information, and to understand the varied cultural influences on zoo
and aquarium development, contributions for this history were sought from individuals who
live in, or are from, the countries and regions about which they write. Initially, some 8 years
ago, trying to find these contributors appeared to be an impossible task; however, cooperative
contacts, persistence, and good fortune produced knowledgeable individuals who were able to
contribute to this history.
Every effort has been made to publish a book that is as comprehensive and authoritative as
possible. Such an endeavor, however, is destined to fall short. A single volume cannot completely
cover 5,000 years of wild animal collections, nor can it cover every country or detail every
collection. It is also difficult to provide a balance among regions, and among countries within
a region. Each contributor is more familiar with particular countries and collections and less
familiar with others. Even within a single country, much less within a large region, there may
be an imbalance in coverage because of difficulties obtaining information.
Although the historical study of zoos and aquariums needs to be approached from many
analytical and disciplinary perspectives, it still requires a practical review of basic information.
Zoo and Aquarium History is intended as an overview of the current state of our knowledge,
with references to the more detailed information. It is hoped that this history will stimulate
the growing interest in this subject and that it will encourage further research. New research,
which is very much needed, will undoubtedly produce additional facts and new insights that
will improve the material in this volume. This research will also help fill the gaps that are
evident in this volume. Much still needs to be learned about the collections, the individuals
who managed the collections, past institutions no longer extant, and existing institutions
throughout the world.
A growing interest in the history of zoos and aquariums has already become apparent. The
1980s and 1990s have been significant decades for this fledgling field of study. The Bartlett
Society was founded in England on October 27, 1984 as an international society for the study
of zoos and wild animal husbandry history. In 1989, the National Zoological Park held an
international zoo history symposium in Washington, D.C. and later published the proceedings
as New Worlds, New Animals: From Menagerie to Zoological Park in the Nineteenth Century.7
Additional institutional histories have also appeared, three professional zoo associations (Amer-
ican Zoo and Aquarium Association, American Association of Zoo Veterinarians, and American
Association of Zoo Keepers) in the United States have appointed association historians, and
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the number of zoo history theses and dissertations at academic institutions has increased. If
this awakening continues its momentum, the future looks bright — but only if zoos and
aquariums archive their records, recognize the interest in their histories, and understand the
value of their past.
Origins and Definitions
What constitutes a zoo and which zoos were first are points of contention that continue to be
debated. The approach taken in this history is a broad one, beginning with the first efforts to
keep wild native animals. This period (ca. 10,000–3000 B.C.) was dominated by the gathering
of wild animals for what turned out to be utilitarian purposes, regardless of whether this was
the original intention. Since domestication is a biological process requiring many generations,
these early efforts involved keeping animals that remained wild for quite some time. Some
species continued to remain wild and were never domesticated. These wild species may have
formed the precursors of later collections, but they could not be considered collections them-
selves (at best, they may have been proto-collections). Rather, these early experiences with wild
animals were simply the important first steps leading to animal collections.
These first efforts evolved into keeping wild native and exotic animals for nonutilitarian
purposes. During this period (ca. 3000 B.C.–A.D. 1456) Mesopotamia, Egypt, China, and possibly
India were the first societies known to have animal collections. The epicenter of these collecting
activities then shifted to the Greco-Roman regions, to the Persian and Arabic regions, and later
to Medieval Europe. Meanwhile, collections continued to exist in China, India, and other Asian
countries. Large collections also existed in Central America (the Aztec collections) and South
America (the Inca collections).
Animal collections evolved into menageries during and after the European Renaissance
period (1456–1828), and then into zoological gardens beginning in the nineteenth century
(1828 to present). In hindsight, however, earlier collections may also be considered menageries
or zoos. Modern usage of these words applies to any collection of wild animals, including
those collections existing in the past. The idea that collections evolved first into menageries
and then into zoological gardens has generated a great deal of discussion. As collections
changed from private to public entities, as they shifted from the domain of the wealthy to
that of the general public, as individual ownership switched to government or society own-
ership, as individual collections became cultural institutions, and as animal husbandry and
exhibition standards improved, collections have certainly become different kinds of places.
These evolutionary changes have prompted the use of menagerie and zoo to acknowledge the
differences, but there is no consensus on the criteria to be used for defining the differences.
In contrast, aquarium evolution is less complicated since it sprang forth as a relatively modern
concept during the 1850s.
There is no precise definition for a menagerie, but in determining that animal collections
evolved into menageries, certain characteristics may be recognized. In a menagerie, as many
species as possible are exhibited, animals are exhibited in taxonomically arranged rows of barred
cages, staff is somewhat knowledgeable about animals, and there are limited education and
science programs; the main emphasis is on recreation or entertainment. Menagerie, as a word,
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did not enter the European vocabulary until it was first used in France in the early eighteenth
century, and it was some time before it was used to refer to a collection of wild animals. However,
menagerie is not a well-defined word and the above characteristics are not precise criteria.
Menagerie tends to be a concept that individuals, including zoo historians, view differently.
Neither is there any precise definition for a zoological garden, but in determining that
menageries became zoological gardens, certain characteristics may again be recognized. In a
sense, zoological gardens are simply sophisticated menageries. Nevertheless, they have more
naturalistic animal exhibits arranged ecologically or zoogeographically, staff that is increasingly
knowledgeable about animals, and improved education, research, and conservation programs.
Conservation parks (or bioparks) are similar to zoological gardens, but with an increased
emphasis on immersion exhibits that re-create natural habitats and on conservation (in situ
field programs, as well as ex situ captive management programs).
Moving along the continuum from menageries to zoological gardens (and on to conservation
parks), it is difficult to pinpoint any clearly defined transition points. However, it can be said
with some degree of certainty that particular institutions led the transition from menageries
to zoological gardens, such as Schönbrunn (Vienna), the Jardin des Plantes (Paris), the London
Zoological Garden, and the Philadelphia Zoological Garden. Other institutions of the world
have performed similar roles for their regions.
Whatever definition one chooses, modern zoos may include a variety of facilities: zoological
parks, conservation parks, aviaries, herpetariums, safari parks, insectariums, butterfly parks, and
endangered species rehabilitation centers. Aquariums and oceanariums are unique forms of
zoological gardens and are here distinguished from the other terrestrially oriented facilities (as
the aquarium profession generally prefers). All of these variations are considered in this history
under the umbrella term zoological gardens. In addition, other modern institutions are merging
with the zoological garden concept. National parks and wildlife reserves are becoming so inten-
sively managed that they are becoming zoogeographic megazoos.8 Examples of this trend are
presented in some of the chapters. Although they are not bona fide zoos, they do resemble the
ancient royal animal parks, and as natural habitats decrease and management of the remaining
park areas increases, these park areas may one day be included in the zoological garden concept.
Historical Trends
A great deal of pride is taken in historical “firsts,” such as which zoo was the first established
in a particular country, which zoo had the first exhibition or first birth of a particular species,
which zoo developed certain kinds of exhibits first, and so on. Pride aside, what is more
important are the trends, of which the firsts are just the beginning. Institutions, such as
zoological gardens, do not begin fully developed and, in fact, are never fully developed. Zoo-
logical gardens are still evolving and today’s state-of-the-art facilities will appear crude to future
generations. Some individuals do not recognize this and prefer to disparage earlier collections
rather than understand them, criticizing them based on today’s standards rather than on
standards contemporary with the period. Institutions must be understood within their histor-
ical context and are, at any particular time, merely snapshots of broader trends contributing
to that historical context.
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“We have a responsibility to our captive animals, brought from their native wilds to minister
to our pleasure and instruction…. Much as has been done in this direction, we must all admit
that there is still more required. The buildings of today will … some day seem to our successors
what the former ones seem to us.”9 The “today” of this statement could easily be 1987, but it
is not — the today of this statement is 1887. And the truth of this century-old statement has
become evident with the often-heard, disparaging remarks about menageries. Our successors
in 2087 will, no doubt, also agree with this statement as they look back on the zoological
gardens of the twentieth century. One hopes they will be more understanding and appreciative
of our efforts than we are of our predecessors’ efforts.
This comparative view of zoos over time can be undertaken because of many institutional
trends that have occurred. Private, privileged collections have evolved into public, cultural
institutions. An emphasis on private, personal pleasure first gave way to public entertainment
and recreation, and then to educational, scientific, and conservation concerns. Improved
knowledge and technology were used to improve the husbandry and exhibition of animals in
the collections. Workforce diversity, both in job responsibilities (based on improved knowledge
and skills) and in types of jobs, transformed what was essentially agricultural work into a zoo
profession. The regional uniqueness of collections has turned into global conformity.
Zoos and aquariums have also been a part of other, broader trends in wildlife biology,
conservation, veterinary medicine, technology, education, park and recreation development,
human sensibilities regarding nature, and many other facets of cultural change. Reflecting these
many influences, zoos have evolved from mere collections (with individuals interested in
wildlife as managers), to menageries (with naturalists as managers in an era of natural history),
to zoological gardens (with zoologists or veterinarians as managers in an era of specialized
science), to conservation parks (with conservationists as managers in an era of endangered
species), to what is now emerging at the beginning of the twenty-first century — the environ-
mental center (with business administrators as managers in an era of marketing, public rela-
tions, and fund-raising). Zoos are returning to the integrated, environmental animal parks of
ancient Mesopotamia, but in a more sophisticated manner. And at the same time, wild nature
itself is becoming a megazoo — just a different kind of captivity.
All of the trends affecting zoos and aquariums need to be studied as we move beyond the
accumulation of basic information about these institutions. However, a great deal of basic
information remains to be discovered in this neglected arena of history. Many good institutions,
animals, and people have made our existing zoos and aquariums what they are today, and
many more have labored at institutions that did not survive. We still know very little about
many of them.
Overview
Zoo and Aquarium History begins with a chronologically arranged global perspective in Chapter
1 and then, about the time of the European Renaissance, changes to a geographic perspective.
Chapter 1 provides an introduction and covers the first keeping of wild animals, the ancient
collections, and the menageries. It covers the world from roughly 10,000 B.C. (the end of the
last Ice Age and the beginning of domestication) to about A.D. 1456 (the beginning of the
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European Renaissance). However, there is some chronological overlap between the end of this
chapter and the beginnings of the other chapters, since the first chapter ends with the devel-
opment of menageries and their transformations into zoological gardens. This was an evolu-
tionary process that took time, that cannot be well defined, and that occurred at different times
in different countries.
Chapters 2 through 11 are geographically arranged histories of zoological gardens, usually
beginning with the menageries upon which these zoological gardens were founded. Some of
the chapters cover individual countries, and others cover regions with several countries. The
chapters provide information on the major zoological gardens of Great Britain, Europe (based
on its historic division into Western Europe and Eastern Europe), the United States, Australia,
Asia, India, Japan, Africa, and South America. Each chapter contains a list of references, which
also serves as bibliography.
An appendix presents a chronological listing of the world’s zoos and aquariums. It is not
intended to be a directory of zoos and aquariums, as only those zoos and aquariums with
known years of establishment are listed. The list is arranged geographically, as are the chapters,
but not all the zoos and aquariums listed are discussed in the text because of space limitations.
References
1. Oelschlaeger, Max, The Idea of Wilderness: From Prehistory to the Age of Ecology, Yale University
Press, New Haven, CT, 1991, 7–8.
2. Baratay, Eric and Hardouin-Fugier, Zoos — Histoire des jardins zoologiques en occident (XVIe –XXe
siècles), La Découverte, Paris, 1998 [Zoos — History of Western Zoological Gardens (16th–20th
Centuries)].
3. Fisher, James, Zoos of the World: The Story of Animals in Captivity, Natural History Press, Garden
City, NY, 1967.
4. Loisel, Gustave, Histoire des ménageries de l’antiquité à nos jours, Octave Doin et Fils and Henri
Laurens, Paris, 1912.
5. Lukaszewicz, K., Ogrody Zoologiczne–Wczoraj–Dzis–Jutro, Wiedza Powszechna, Warszawa, 1975
[Zoological Gardens–Yesterday–Today–Tomorrow].
6. Hediger, H., Zoologische Gärten. Gestern–Heute–Morgen, Hallwag Verlag, Bern, Switzerland, 1977
[Zoological Gardens: Yesterday, Today, Tomorrow].
7. Hoage, R. J. and Deiss, William A., Eds., New Worlds, New Animals: From Menagerie to Zoological
Park in the Nineteenth Century, Johns Hopkins University Press, Baltimore, MD, 1996.
8. Sullivan, Arthur L. and Shaffer, Mark L., “Biogeography of the megazoo: biogeographic studies
suggest organizing principles for a future system of wild lands,” Science, 189, 13, 1975.
9. Flower, William, “Jubilee address,” in Annual Report, Zoological Society of London, London, 1887.