World War I Almanac (Almanacs of American Wars)

561 Pages·2009·15.42 MB·English

by  David R. Woodward

ALMANACS oOF AoMERICAN WARS
W W I
OR LD AR
A
LMANAC
David R. Woodward
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World War I Almanac
Copyright © 2009 by David R. Woodward
All rights reserved. No part of this book may be reproduced or utilized in any form or by
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Library of Congress Cataloging-in-Publication Data
Woodward, David R., 1939–
World War I almanac / David R. Woodward.
p. cm.
Includes bibliographical references and index.
ISBN 978-0-8160-7134-0 (hc : alk. paper)
ISBN 978-1-4381-1896-3 (e-book) 1. World War, 1914–1918—Almanacs. 2. World War,
1914–1918—Chronology. 3. World War, 1914–1918—Biography. 4. Almanacs, American. I.
Title. II. Title: World War One almanac.
D505.W56 2009
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ONTE NTS
Acknowledgments iv
Introduction v
Chronology 1
Biographies 463
Glossary of Abbreviations and Terms 501
Appendixes
I. Mobilized Manpower of Belligerents 503
II. Casualties in World War I 504
Maps 505
Note on the Sources 516
Bibliography 517
Index 538
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A o
C KNOWLE DG M E NTS
Researching and writing books has always been a collective enterprise for me. I
have without exception benefited greatly from the scholarship of historians who
have gone before me. Special recognition is given in the Note on Sources to those
who have been of particular help to my research for this almanac. I also wish to
thank the staff of the Drinko and Morrow libraries at Marshall University who
went out of their way to assist my research. The Marshall University administration
also kindly allowed me to occupy an office on campus while preparing this volume.
Professor Donna Spindel, the chair of the history department, and the departmen-
tal secretary, Terry Bailey, were also most helpful in a variety of ways. My heartfelt
thanks go out to all of them. Finally I would like to thank my wife Martha for her
support and her keen proofreading eye.
David R. Woodward
Emeritus Professor of History
Marshall University
iv
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o I
NTRODUCTION
This almanac, arranged by year and by date, is intended to provide a day-by-day
chronicle of the Great War, as it was generally known until eclipsed by the even
greater global conflict of 1939–45. It can be read from cover to cover and also
serve as a reference work. It might be viewed as narrative history in the extreme.
As A. J. P. Taylor once observed, “After all, the distinguishing mark of history is that
events happen in order of time. How else can you present them?” I also attempt to
explain as well as chronicle events.
The coverage is comprehensive, with every theater—from German East Africa
to Mesopotamia to the western front—receiving attention. Grand strategy is exam-
ined, as well as the evolution of tactics as new weapons are employed. The home
fronts of the warring nations, including the Russian Revolution, are not neglected.
The same is true for coalition war making and efforts to negotiate an end to the
war. The aftermath of the war is also treated, including the peace settlement, civil
war, and foreign intervention in Russia, the Russo-Polish War, and the Turkish War
for Independence. In sum, both information and interpretation are provided about
a wide range of subjects.
To enable the reader to follow a particular event, whether it is the role of the U.S.
military, intervention in Russia, the air war, the Italian front, the Paris Peace Con-
ference, or some other aspect of the war and its immediate aftermath, headings are
provided. A single date is also frequently accompanied by numerous subheadings.
Quotations from archival or primary sources are often included. Many of these
quotations are a product of my research of more than four decades in archives such
as the British Library, the Department of Documents in the Imperial War Museum,
the National Archives (formerly the Public Record Office), the Library of Congress
Manuscript Division, the National Archives, the Liddell Hart Centre for Military
Archives at King’s College, London, and the House of Lords Record Office. I have
also relied on printed collections of documents and some thoroughly researched
secondary works in languages with which I am not familiar.
The reader should be aware of the following. Chroniclers of conflict cannot
usually agree on numbers, whether it is casualty figures, the depth of an advance,
the number of aircraft involved in an air raid or the bombs they dropped, or even
the beginning and ending of battles. World War I battles often wound down with
no clear or dramatic ending; hence, one country’s official military history some-
times does not agree with the dates used in another country’s official military
v
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vi World War I Almanac
history. The same is true with casualty figures and even the names of battles. In
addition to different time zones, there were two calendars in use throughout most
of the war. In the 20th century, 13 days separated the Old Style Julian calendar
used in countries such as Greece, Turkey, and Russia from the New Style Gregorian
calendar used in western Europe. I use New Style dates throughout. To resolve
conflicts, I have often turned to the Official History of the Great War: Principal
Events, 1914–1918, compiled by the historical section of the Committee of Imperial
Defence, and the two-volume Chronicle of the First World War, compiled by Randal
Gray, with Christopher Argyle. But I have by no means found these sources to be
infallible. Nor does this writer claim to be omniscient.
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H RONOLOGY
1871
January 18
POLITICAL/DIPLOMATIC: Wilhelm I is proclaimed German Emperor. France’s defeat
in the Franco-Prussian War (1870–71) and the creation of Germany’s Second Reich
destroy the old European equilibrium, with Germany replacing France as the most
powerful continental power.
May 10
POLITICAL/DIPLOMATIC: By the Treaty of Frankfurt, Germany annexes Alsace and
part of Lorraine, thus provoking the idea of a future war of revenge in an embit-
tered France.
1879
October 7
POLITICAL/DIPLOMATIC: Germany signs her most important prewar alliance, the
Austro-German Alliance.
1881
June 18
POLITICAL/DIPLOMATIC: Prince Otto von Bismarck, the German statesman, suc-
ceeds in his desire to bring together the most conservative of the great European
powers, Russia, Germany, and Austria-Hungary, in the Three Emperors’ League,
which provides for the benevolent neutrality of the others if one of the members of
this alliance is involved against a fourth power. It should be noted that this commit-
ment does not apply to the Ottoman Empire.
1882
May 20
POLITICAL/DIPLOMATIC: Hoping to isolate France and enhance the security of a
newly unified Germany, Prince Otto von Bismarck plays the leading role in creating
the Triple Alliance (Germany, Austria-Hungary, and Italy).
1
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  World War I Almanac  1887
1887
June 18
Political/DiPlomatic: When the Three Emper-
ors’ League is not renewed, Bismarck attempts to
keep Russo-German relations on an even keel
by negotiating the Reinsurance Treaty with St.
Petersburg.
1888
March 9
Political: Wilhelm II, described by one of his
leading biographers, Lamar Cecil, as a leader
without “virtue or accomplishment,” becomes
emperor of Germany.
1890
March 15
Political: Wilhelm II forces Bismarck to resign.
June 18
Political/DiPlomatic: Wilhelm II allows the
Reinsurance Treaty with Russia to expire.
1892–94
Political/DiPlomatic: Formation of Franco-
Russian Military Convention. In an exchange
Wilhelm II, German
of letters (December 27, 1893, and January 4, 1894), the Russian and French gov-
Emperor and king
ernments ratify the Convention of August 17, 1892, which had been signed by the
of Prussia (Library
French and Russian chiefs of staff. This fateful convention requires all-out military
of Congress)
cooperation if France were to be attacked by Germany or by Italy supported by Ger-
many, of if Russia were to be attacked by Germany or by Austria-Hungary supported
by Germany. This secret convention also required the mobilization of the “whole of
their forces” and their placement “as close as possible to their frontiers” in the event
of the mobilization of the Triple Alliance “or one of the Powers composing it.”
1899
October 9
military oPerations: Paul S. J. Kruger, president of Transvaal, gives neighboring
British forces 48 hours to disband all military preparations. The British rejection of
this ultimatum and the subsequent Boer offensive will precipitate a three-year con-
flict (South African War, 1899–1902). The British eventually commit some 500,000
1905 Chronology 3
men to this war, although the Boers probably never have a force in the field larger
than 40,000.
1900
June 12
NAVAL: The Reichstag accepts the Second Naval Law, which continues the dramatic
expansion of Germany’s battleship fleet. The Naval Laws of 1898 and 1900 reflect
the German government’s desire to pursue a Weltpolitik, or “world policy.”
1902
January 30
POLITICAL/DIPLOMATIC: The Anglo-Japanese Alliance is formed. The British and
Japanese agree to support each other if either goes to war with two or more powers
in the Far East.
May 31
POLITICAL/DIPLOMATIC: The Treaty of Vereeniging ends the Boer War. Although
the Boers accept British sovereignty, they receive very generous terms from London,
including compensation for damage to farms.
1904
February 8
NAVAL: The Russo-Japanese War begins when Japanese torpedo boats launch a sur-
prise attack against the Russian fleet at Port Arthur, leased by Russia from the Chi-
nese government.
April 8
POLITICAL/DIPLOMATIC: France and Great Britain sign the Entente Cordiale.
Although this agreement resolves Anglo-French imperial disputes in such areas as
Egypt and Morocco, it is more an “understanding” than an alliance. Neither side
accepts any military obligation or provides for joint naval or military planning.
1905
January 2
MILITARY OPERATIONS: The Japanese take Port Arthur after a siege that costs them
59,000 casualties.
January 22
POLITICAL: Czarist troops fire on peaceful demonstrators in St. Petersburg. This
“Bloody Sunday,” along with Russia’s unsuccessful war in Asia, precipitates the Rus-
sian Revolution of 1905 that will eventually force Nicholas II to grant new civil
liberties and a national parliament to his subjects.
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