Wireless Positioning: Principles and Practice

629 Pages·2019·16.576 MB·English

by  Ian Sharp, Kegen Yu

Navigation: Science and Technology
Ian Sharp
Kegen Yu
Wireless
Positioning:
Principles and
Practice
Navigation: Science and Technology
TheseriesNavigation:ScienceandTechnology(NST)presentsnewdevelopments
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More information about this series at http://www.springer.com/series/15704
Ian Sharp Kegen Yu
(cid:129)
Wireless Positioning:
Principles and Practice
123
IanSharp Kegen Yu
CSIRO ICTCentre ChinaUniversity of Mining
Marsfield, NSW andTechnology
Australia Xuzhou
China
ISSN 2522-0454 ISSN 2522-0462 (electronic)
Navigation: Science andTechnology
ISBN978-981-10-8790-5 ISBN978-981-10-8791-2 (eBook)
https://doi.org/10.1007/978-981-10-8791-2
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Contents
1 Introduction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1
1.1 Basics of Wireless Positioning. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2
1.2 Overview of the Book. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 5
2 Designing Positioning Systems. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 9
2.1 Introduction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 9
2.2 Overview of Positioning Systems Architecture . . . . . . . . . . . . . 10
2.2.1 Navigation. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 10
2.2.2 Tracking . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 12
2.2.3 Mesh Positioning Systems . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 13
2.3 Overview of Design Procedures. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 15
2.3.1 Functional Requirements. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 15
2.3.2 Selection of Radio Frequency and Bandwidth . . . . . . . 17
2.3.3 Radio Propagation Characteristics in the Operating
Environment . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 18
2.3.4 Time-of-Arrival Measurements . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 19
2.3.5 Link Budget. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 22
2.3.6 Time and Frequency Synchronization . . . . . . . . . . . . . 23
2.3.7 Data Communications Requirements . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 26
2.3.8 Position Determination . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 28
2.3.9 Auxiliary Sensors Requirements . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 30
2.4 Tracking Systems Design . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 30
2.5 Mesh Network Design . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 32
References . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 34
3 Signaling Techniques . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 37
3.1 Introduction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 37
3.2 Pulse Shapes and Energy Spectrum . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 37
3.2.1 Ultra-wideband Spectrum Masks. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 38
3.2.2 Rectangular Pulse. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 39
v
vi Contents
3.2.3 Gaussian Pulse and Its Derivatives . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 40
3.2.4 Raised Cosine Pulse. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 41
3.2.5 Gaussian Modulated Sinusoidal Pulse . . . . . . . . . . . . . 44
3.2.6 Chirp Waveform . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 45
3.3 Modulation Techniques for Positioning . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 48
3.3.1 Typical UWB Modulation Techniques. . . . . . . . . . . . . 49
3.3.2 Pulse-Based Systems, Single-Carrier Systems
and Multi-carrier Systems. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 53
3.3.3 Single-Antenna Systems Versus Multiple-Antenna
Systems. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 55
3.4 Spread-Spectrum Techniques. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 56
3.4.1 Three Basic Spectrum Spreading Approaches. . . . . . . . 57
3.4.2 Spreading Codes . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 59
3.5 Radar and FMCW . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 65
3.5.1 Pulse Radar . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 65
3.5.2 FMCW Radar . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 65
3.5.3 FMCW for Network Based Positioning . . . . . . . . . . . . 69
References . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 72
4 Time-of-Arrival Measurements . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 75
4.1 Introduction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 75
4.2 Overview of Time-of-Arrival Measurements. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 75
4.2.1 Overview of TOA Measurements . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 76
4.2.2 Transmitter to Receiver Timing Measurements. . . . . . . 78
4.2.3 Overview of TOA Algorithms. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 81
4.2.4 Theoretical Gaussian Noise Performance . . . . . . . . . . . 89
4.2.5 TOA Algorithm Multipath Performance. . . . . . . . . . . . 90
4.2.6 Statistical Effect of Signal Bandwidth . . . . . . . . . . . . . 95
4.2.7 Measured Indoor TOA Errors . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 97
References . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 98
5 Time and Frequency Synchronization. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 101
5.1 Introduction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 101
5.2 Time Synchronization in Tracking Systems . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 102
5.2.1 Time Synchronisation with Three Base Stations. . . . . . 103
5.2.2 Timing Reference Transmitter Architecture . . . . . . . . . 104
5.2.3 Performance Measurements Using the Timing
Reference System. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 108
5.2.4 Calibrating the Timing Reference System . . . . . . . . . . 111
5.3 Frequency Control in Tracking Systems. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 113
5.3.1 Overview. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 113
5.3.2 Details of the Frequency Control Loop . . . . . . . . . . . . 115
5.3.3 Example of Control Loop. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 119
5.4 Frequency Control in Mesh Network Systems . . . . . . . . . . . . . 120
Contents vii
5.4.1 Frequency Synchronization Procedure . . . . . . . . . . . . . 123
5.4.2 Estimation of Range Errors Due to Motion . . . . . . . . . 124
5.4.3 Frequency Synchronization for Mobile Nodes . . . . . . . 126
References . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 130
6 Enhanced Least Squares Positioning. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 131
6.1 Introduction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 131
6.2 Enhanced Iterative LS Method. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 132
6.2.1 Position Determination Analysis . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 132
6.2.2 Bias Parameter k . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 137
6.3 Enhanced LS Algorithm Characteristics . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 138
6.3.1 Generalized Solution . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 139
6.3.2 Biased Error Solution . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 141
6.4 Determination of the Bias Parameter . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 142
6.4.1 Optimal Bias Parameter . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 142
6.4.2 Determining k from Measured Data. . . . . . . . . . . . . 145
opt
6.5 Measured Performance . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 147
References . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 153
7 Use of Sensors for Position Determination . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 155
7.1 Overview of Sensor Position Determination . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 155
7.2 Sensors for Mobile Location Devices. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 157
7.2.1 Magnetometers. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 158
7.2.2 Rate Gyroscopes . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 159
7.2.3 Accelerometers. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 159
7.2.4 Measurement Errors and Calibration . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 160
7.3 Introduction to Complementary Filters . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 165
7.3.1 Complementary Filtering—An Overview. . . . . . . . . . . 165
7.3.2 Basic Complementary Filter . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 166
7.3.3 Enhanced Filtering to Remove Rate-Gyro
Bias Errors. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 170
7.3.4 Filtering Rate-Gyro Scale Factor Errors. . . . . . . . . . . . 173
7.3.5 Measured Performance . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 175
7.4 Velocity Determination Using Radiolocation
and Inertial Data. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 177
7.4.1 Introduction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 177
7.4.2 Theoretical Analysis. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 177
7.5 Assessment of the Benefits of Using Gyros
and Accelerometers. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 188
7.6 Heading Angle Using Radiolocation and Gyroscope Data . . . . . 190
7.6.1 Overview. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 190
7.6.2 Basic Theory . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 191
7.6.3 Heading Determination. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 193
7.6.4 Kalman Filter Design . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 196
viii Contents
7.6.5 Measurement Errors . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 199
7.7 Determining Stride Length Using Accelerometer . . . . . . . . . . . 202
7.7.1 Overview of Theory of Stride Length
Determination . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 203
7.7.2 Dimensional Analysis. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 203
7.7.3 Data on the Human Body. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 205
7.7.4 Simple Dynamical Model of Walking . . . . . . . . . . . . . 205
7.7.5 Measurements . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 209
References . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 217
8 Indoor WiFi Positioning . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 219
8.1 Introduction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 219
8.2 Access Point Selection . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 220
8.2.1 MM Method . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 220
8.2.2 Information Gain Based Method . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 221
8.2.3 Mutual Information Based Method . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 222
8.2.4 Performance Comparison Among Different
Selection Methods . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 223
8.3 RSSI Measurement Accuracy Improvement . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 225
8.3.1 Mean Algorithm. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 225
8.3.2 Mean Maximum Method . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 226
8.4 Weighted K-Nearest Neighbors Algorithm . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 234
8.5 Radius Based Domain Clustering Method . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 236
References . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 239
9 Link Budgets and System Design for Positioning Systems . . . . . . . 241
9.1 Introduction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 241
9.2 Overview of Design Process . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 242
9.3 Link Budget Parameters . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 243
9.4 Correlation and Process Gain. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 246
9.5 Radio Propagation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 248
9.5.1 Free-Space Propagation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 248
9.5.2 Two-Ray Model. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 249
9.5.3 Generalisation of Free-Space Model . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 250
9.5.4 Hata Model (City) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 252
9.6 Statistical Link Budget Performance. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 254
9.6.1 Log-Normal Variation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 255
9.6.2 Small-Scale Signal Statistics . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 256
9.7 Case Studies of Positioning Systems . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 259
9.7.1 Rowing (2.4 GHz, 100 mW Transmitter, 2000 m) . . . . 260
9.7.2 Indoor Position Determination (5.8 GHz, 10 mW
Transmitter, 50 m) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 263
Contents ix
9.7.3 Covert Vehicle Tracking (400 MHz, 100 mW
Transmitter, 15 km) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 265
9.7.4 UWB Testbed (6 GHz, 0.1 mW Transmitter, 50 m) . . . 268
References . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 271
10 Applications for Non-GNSS Positioning Systems. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 273
10.1 Introduction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 273
10.2 Overview of Applications . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 274
10.3 Sports Training. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 275
10.3.1 Base Station. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 277
10.3.2 Master Station . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 277
10.3.3 Mobile Device . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 277
10.3.4 Software . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 278
10.4 Motor Sports (NASCAR) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 280
10.4.1 Deployment . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 280
10.4.2 Functional and Performance Requirements. . . . . . . . . . 281
10.4.3 Timing Performance. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 285
10.4.4 Other Data. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 288
10.5 Horse Racing . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 288
10.5.1 Deployment . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 288
10.5.2 Overall Tracking Performance. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 289
10.5.3 Relative Tracking Performance . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 294
10.5.4 Sensor Measurements and Performance . . . . . . . . . . . . 295
10.5.5 Measured Timing Events During a Race . . . . . . . . . . . 303
10.6 Accurate Timing of Crossing a Line Across a Track. . . . . . . . . 309
10.7 Animal Tracking. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 316
10.7.1 Cattle Grazing Pattern. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 318
10.7.2 Herding Cattle . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 319
10.7.3 Feeding Hay to Cattle. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 319
10.7.4 Sheep Grazing in Flock . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 320
10.7.5 Herding Sheep in Flock . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 322
References . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 328
11 System Testing . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 329
11.1 Introduction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 329
11.2 Types of Measurements for System Performance
Determination. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 331
11.2.1 Signal Strength Measurements. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 331
11.2.2 Environmental Impulse Response Measurements . . . . . 331
11.2.3 TOA and Time Synchronisation Measurements . . . . . . 333
11.2.4 Round Trip Time Method. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 334
11.3 Positioning Measurements—Accuracy Determination . . . . . . . . 335
11.3.1 Static Measurements. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 335
11.3.2 Dual Measurements at Fixed Separation . . . . . . . . . . . 346