Wind Energy Design

353 Pages·2018·7.18 MB·English

by  Corke

Wind Energy
Design

Wind Energy
Design
•
THOMAS CORKE ROBERT NELSON
Boca Raton London New York
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Library of Congress Cataloging‑in‑Publication Data
Names: Corke, Thomas C., author. | Nelson, Robert C., 1942- author.
Title: Wind energy design / Thomas Corke and Robert Nelson.
Description: Boca Raton : Taylor & Francis, CRC Press, 2018. | Includes bibliographical
references and index.
Identifiers: LCCN 2018008945| ISBN 9781138096028 (hardback : alk. paper) | ISBN
9781315105468 (e-book)
Subjects: LCSH: Wind turbines--Design and construction. | Wind power plants--Design
and construction.
Classification: LCC TJ828 .C67 2018 | DDC 621.31/2136--dc23
LC record available at https://lccn.loc.gov/2018008945
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To Bobbie, Catherine, Laura and Sarah for sharing
the journey
—TCC
To my wife July and the many students I have had the
opportunity to teach
—RCN

Contents
Preface xi
List of Figures xv
List of Tables xxv
1 Introduction 1
1.1 History of Wind Energy . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1
1.1.1 Modern Era of Wind Energy . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 13
2 Wind Regimes 25
2.1 Origin of Wind . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 25
2.2 Atmospheric Boundary Layer . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 26
2.3 Temporal Statistics . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 29
2.4 Wind Speed Probability . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 31
2.5 Statistical Models . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 33
2.5.1 Weibull Distribution . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 34
2.5.2 Methods for Weibull model fits. . . . . . . . . . . . . . 37
2.5.3 Rayleigh Distribution . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 41
2.6 Energy Estimation of Wind Regimes . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 42
2.6.0.1 Weibull-based Energy Estimation Approach 42
2.6.1 Rayleigh-based Energy Estimation Approach . . . . . 45
2.7 Wind Condition Measurement . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 49
2.7.1 Wind Speed Anemometers. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 49
3 Introduction to Aerodynamics 57
3.1 Introduction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 57
3.2 Airfoil Geometry . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 60
3.3 Dimensional Analysis . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 61
3.4 Airfoil Aerodynamics . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 65
3.5 Airfoil Geometry . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 67
3.6 Aerodynamic Characteristic of Three NACA Airfoils . . . . . 68
3.7 Airfoil Sensitivity to Leading edge Roughness . . . . . . . . . 72
3.8 New Airfoil Designs for the Wind Power Industry . . . . . . 74
3.9 Summary . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 75
vii
viii Contents
4 Aerodynamic Performance 83
4.1 Momentum Theory . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 83
4.2 Momentum Theory with Wake Rotation . . . . . . . . . . . 94
4.3 Blade Element Momentum (BEM) Theory . . . . . . . . . . 99
4.4 Prandtl’s Tip Loss Factor . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 104
4.5 Solution of the BEM Equations . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 106
4.5.1 Example BEM Equation Solution . . . . . . . . . . . . 108
5 Horizontal Wind Turbine Rotor Design 121
5.1 Designing a New wind Turbine . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 121
5.2 Initial Blade Sizing . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 122
5.2.1 Example Rotor Design . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 128
6 Wind Turbine Control 135
6.1 Aerodynamic Torque Control . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 138
6.1.1 Electrical Torque Control . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 139
6.2 Wind Turbine Operation Strategy . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 141
6.2.1 Fixed Speed Designs . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 141
6.2.2 Variable Speed Designs . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 142
6.2.3 Variable Speed Adaptive Torque Control. . . . . . . . 143
6.3 Axial Induction Control . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 145
7 Structural Design 161
7.1 Rotor Response to Loads . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 166
7.2 Rotor Vibration Modes . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 171
7.3 Design for Extreme Conditions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 175
8 Wind Farms 183
8.1 Wind Turbine Wake Effects . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 184
8.2 Wind Farm Design Optimization . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 189
9 Wind Turbine Acoustics 195
9.1 Acoustics Fundamentals . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 196
9.2 Sound Pressure Measurement and Weighting . . . . . . . . . 198
9.3 dB Math . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 200
9.4 Low Frequency and Infrasound . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 201
9.5 Wind Turbine Sound Sources . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 202
9.6 Sound Propagation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 207
9.7 Background Sound . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 211
9.8 Noise Standards . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 212
9.9 Wind Turbine Project Noise Assessment . . . . . . . . . . . 213
Contents ix
10 Wind Energy Storage 219
10.1 Electro-chemical Energy Storage . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 220
10.1.1 Lead-acid Batteries. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 222
10.1.2 Nickel-based Batteries. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 222
10.1.3 Lithium-based Batteries.. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 223
10.1.4 Additional Electro-chemical Storage Technologies . . . 224
10.1.5 Sodium Sulfur Batteries. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 225
10.1.6 Redox Flow Battery. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 225
10.1.7 Metal-air Battery. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 227
10.2 Supercapacitor Storage . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 227
10.3 Hydrogen Storage . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 229
10.4 Mechanical Energy Storage Systems . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 230
10.4.1 Pumped Storage Hydroelectricity. . . . . . . . . . . . 231
10.4.2 Compressed Air Storage.. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 232
10.4.3 Flywheel Storage. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 234
10.5 CAES Case Study . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 238
10.5.1 Cost Function. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 240
10.5.2 Net Benefit. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 243
10.6 Battery Case Study . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 244
10.7 Hydro-electric Storage Case Study . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 245
10.8 Buoyant Hydraulic Energy Storage Case Study . . . . . . . . 246
11 Economics 253
11.1 Cost of Energy, COE . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 254
11.2 Component Estimate Formulas . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 256
11.3 Example Cost Breakdown . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 266
11.4 Summary . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 268
12 Design Summary and Trade Study 273
12.1 Design Power . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 274
12.2 Design Structure . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 275
12.3 Design Economics . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 276
13 New Concepts 285
13.1 Vertical Axis Wind Turbine . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 285
13.2 Wind Focusing Concepts . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 288
13.2.1 Shrouded Rotors . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 288
13.3 Bladeless Wind Turbine Concepts . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 291
13.3.1 Airborne Wind Turbine Concepts. . . . . . . . . . . . 293
13.4 Other Concepts . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 295
14 Appendix 301
14.1 Size Specifications of Common Industrial Wind Turbines . . 301
14.2 Design Trade Code 1: Performance and Structure . . . . . . 303
14.3 Design Trade Code 2: Economics . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 311