Table Of Content

PER E 185. 86 T77 V.6,N0.1 IPR/WIN TROTTER 'r (2 tmy INSTITUTE REVIEW Winter/Spring 1992 Volume Number 6, 1 Winter/Spring 1992 INSIDE • 3 Introduction Review James Jennings Trotter Institute • 4 Are Today's Teachers Being Prepared Editor for Diversity? An Analysis of School James Jennings Catalogues James Jennings and lllene Carver Associate Editor Harold Horton • 8 Thoughts on Black Conservatism: A Review Essay Production Editor Martin Kilson Leslie Bowen • 15 Du Bois and the Boys' Club of the Production Staff 'Great Books' Sue Baker Bill Farrell Eva Hendricks • 18 Inside the American Stratification System: Imageries from Black Writers Clinton M. Jean • 22 An Interview with John D. O'Bryant Harold Horton The Trotter Institute Review is published by the William Monroe Trotter Institute, University of Massachusetts at Boston, Boston, MA 02125-3393. Subscriptions are $6.00 per year for indi- viduals and$12.00peryearforinstitutions. Opinions expressedherein are those of the authors, or persons interviewed, and are not necessarily shared by the university or the editors. Copy- right © 1992 The William Monroe Trotter Institute. ISSN 1040-6573 Introduction by James Jennings This issue of the Trotter Institute Review is de- voted to a two-part proposition. The first is that institutions, agencies, businesses, and schools must begin to reflect the increasingly diverse ethnic and racial characteristics of American society. America is in the midst of a demographic revolution. It is unfortunate that some educators have chosen to ignore the social, economic, and intellectual implications of this change and that others have even become angry and attacked efforts to create an appreciation of multiculturalism. This unfortunate resistance to the implications of America's unfolding demography leads to the second proposition reflected in this issue of the Trotter James Jennings Institute Review. That is, institutions of higher edu- cial and ethnic backgrounds. Unless one is simply cation have a unique professional and moral respon- narrow-minded, backward, or ignorant about his- sibility to help lead the nation to its next stage of so- tory, how is it possible to purposefully exclude such cial and economic development. This leadership will an internationally renowned scholar and thinker as not be forthcoming if the issue of diversity is ig- W. E. B. Du Bois? As Farrell points out, this is nored. America will not develop ifthe contributions exactly what Encyclopedia Britannica has done in its of people of color continue to be dismissed. We can series on the Great Books ofthe Western World. no longer delay the building of a multiracial, multi- Clinton Jean shows that the earlier lexicon de- cultural society— as Dr. Martin Luther King, Jr. fending Eurocentric arrogance has given way to new said, "We are faced with the fact that tomorrow is phrases. There was a time when one could speak of here today."1 Aryan superiority, as did President Theodore The articles in this issue of the Trotter Institute Roosevelt, or the "Manifest Destiny" of white peo- Review present information about tomorrow while ple, but today, use of such a lexicon is no longer ac- offering suggestions for what can be done today to ceptable—as has been realized by David Duke. Dr. produce a stronger, healthier, and more democratic Jean points out how terms like "individual free- American society. The first article is based on a con- dom," "merit," and "reverse discrimination" are now tent analysis ofcatalogues from teacher preparation used instead to defend an outdated social structure. schools and programs in Massachusetts. The study I am especially pleased to be able to offer the last showed that school catalogues and bulletins, im- article, an interview with the first black person to be portant marketing and recruitment devices, virtu- elected to the Boston School Committee in this cen- ally ignore any suggestion that future teachers tury. Mr. O'Bryant has dedicated his life to excel- should be made aware of or trained to respond pro- lence in public education for the sake ofall children. fessionally to the changing racial and ethnic diver- We end this issue ofthe TrotterInstitute Review with sity of students in the public schools. this particular article because it reminds us again of The next article, by Martin Kilson of Harvard Dr. King. In the final analysis, the response of University, examines a recent book that is critical of American higher education to the challenge of ra- affirmative action. Professor Kilson has written on cial and ethnic diversity will have a profound impact the issue of race and class for more than three on the children in our society who represent our fu- decades. His article highlights inconsistencies in the ture. How we prepare them today, for the challenges argument raised by law professor Stephen L. Carter of tomorrow, will affect all of us: indeed, "... in his book, Reflections of an Affirmative Action tomorrow is here today." Baby. Bill FarrelPs article suggests how contradictory it Notes is to discuss "great books" or "great ideas" without 1. MartinLutherKing, Jr., ChaosorCommunity: WhereDo WeGo considering the contributions of people from all ra- from Here? (Boston: Beacon Press, 1968). Are Today's Teachers August 22, 1990), "We are interested in the amount taught, quality and depth ofthe material presented, Being Prepared methods ofpresentation, integration into the overall curriculum and the preparation ofteachers to teach for Diversity? black history." The official catalogues ofthese schools are avalu- An Analysis of able resource for this kind of information, contain- ing course listings and descriptions as well as outlin- School Catalogues ing degree requirements. As important marketing devices for attracting potential students, they advise students about the philosophy and mission of the by particular school or program and how certain topics James Jennings and lllene Carver will be approached in the course of their training. Information from the Board of Regents shows a total offifty-two schools inMassachusetts that offer various kinds of programs for the preparation of A school teachers. The Trotter Institute collected cata- Thefollowing isasummary of Content Analysis logues from fifty of these schools. The offerings in of Racial and Ethnic Themes in Catalogues Dis- early childhood and elementary education were tributed by Teacher Preparation Schools in Massa- carefully reviewed for the following information:1 chusetts, 1989 and 1990, a report issued by the Com- munity Research and Technical Assistance Program • Are there any courses listed in the catalogues of the William Monroe' Trotter Institute in January with titles suggesting multicultural, racial, or 1991 ethnic considerations? Are any ofthese courses required? A • Arethere any course descriptions which refer to recent content analysis study shows that while multicultural, racial, or ethnic themes? Are any leading educators in Massachusetts stress the impor- of these courses required? tance of preparing teachers for an increasingly di- • Does the catalogue include any program verse world, most teacher preparation schools vir- descriptions relating to multicultural, racial, or tually ignore the issue of racial and ethnic diversity ethnic topics? in catalogues recruiting new students. This not only discourages people from diverse backgrounds from Code words and phrases were used as guides to becoming teachers, but could also create a lack of determine whether or not attention was being paid understanding in the classroom ofthe black, Latino, to multicultural, racial, or ethnic themes and topics. and Asian students being taught. These words and phrases included: Generally, there appears to be little serious atten- African Americans tion paid to introducing future teachers in elemen- bilingual education tary and early childhood education to the growing blacks racial and ethnic diversity in American society. busing While the catalogues reviewed contained hundreds community studies of course titles and descriptions, less than 5 percent cross-cultural education of these courses mentioned any racial, ethnic, or cultural learning styles multicultural themes in their titles or descriptions. cultural awareness Few ofthese same courses were required for degrees. desegregation This finding is based on a survey of 1989 and 1990 diversity catalogues of teacher preparation programs and equal educational opportunity schools in the commonwealth of Massachusetts equity conducted by the Trotter Institute's Community Re- ethnic minorities search and Technical Assistance (CRTA) Program ethnic minorities and published as a report in 1991. familiarity with urban community The study was initiated in 1990 in answer to a request by Lovell Dyett, executive curator ofthe Com- Hispanic cultures inner city mission on the Hall of Black Achievement of minority experiences Bridgewater State College, for assistance in deter- multiculturalism mining the degree of prioritization given the teach- multilingualism ing of black social and urban experiences in schools poverty and cultural differences and programs preparing future teachers in the commonwealth. As Mr. Dyett requested (pers. com. race relations race and ethnic relations under elementary and early childhood education for racial and ethnic differences undergraduate and graduate students. The cata- racial and cultural needs logue for Simmons College also reflected a serious racial heterogeneity effort to introduce students in elementary and early racism childhood education to racial, ethnic, and multicultural themes by requiring and strongly recommend- If these terms were found in a course title or ing that students in these programs take at least one description, then it was seen as a reflection of possi- course in African-American studies. bly some degree of attention to preparing teachers Wheelock College also listed numerous required for professional settings involving racial and ethnic A courses with titles and descriptions suggesting atten- diversity. course title suggesting attention to racial tion to racial, ethnic, and multicultural themes. In and ethnic diversity does not necessarily mean the fact, Wheelock College stands out among the topic is adequately covered in the course. Similarly, schools in its emphasis on these themes as an inte- the absence of a course title or description suggesting such attention may not be an accurate indication gral part of its teacher preparation programs, seventeen of forty-three courses in the undergraduate cur- of course content. The former, however, may be riculum having titles or descriptions strongly some indication or sensitivity to the relative impor- suggesting the importance of racial, ethnic, and tance of diversity issues to a particular school. multicultural themes in the preparation of future teachers. A In elementary education the situation was similar. catalogue that suggests that a school or — Twenty-three of thirty-nine degree programs 57 program reflects an appreciation ofracial, percent— showed no indication that students would linguistic, and ethnic diversity may attract a be introduced to issues touching upon race, ethnicity, or multiculturalism. Of the seventeen schools greater number of black, Latino, and Asian that did have listings dealing with racial and ethnic students. diversity, about half were not required for a degree. To summarize, there are very few course titles or descriptions in the catalogues of teacher prepara- More than two-thirds ofthe thirty-one schools of- tion schools suggesting an appreciation of the im- fering degree programs in early childhood education portance of introducing future teachers to racial, did not suggest the importance of preparing teach- ethnic, or multicultural themes and discussions. Of ers for an increasingly diverse society in any of their the handful of courses with titles or descriptions course titles. However, nineteen of the thirty-one suggesting consideration of racial, ethnic, and mul- catalogues— or 62 percent—did indicate some at- ticultural themes, nearly half are not required for tention to racial, ethnic, and multicultural themes in undergraduate or graduate students to receive their course descriptions. But, nearly half of the degrees. early childhood education courses whose titles or descriptions indicated some attention to racial, ethnic, and multicultural issues were not required. In addition to recruiting and retaining a greater Interestingly, large or urban teacher preparation schools and programs did not reflect any greater at- number of black, Latino, and Asian teachers, tention to racial, ethnic, and multicultural issues. teacher preparation schools andprograms need to Several of the larger schools in the greater Boston prepare all teachersfor the pedagogical area, for example, published catalogues listing many courses, but none gave any indication in the titles or implications ofan increasingly diverse society. descriptions of racial, ethnic, or multicultural themes. As a matter of fact, one of the largest teacher preparation schools in Boston did not list a As Meyer Weinberg described in A Chance to single course in more than one hundred graduate of- Learn: A History of Race and Education in the ferings with a title suggesting any consideration of United States, there seems to be a quiet "suspension racial, ethnic, or multicultural issues. Whilethis par- of reality" regarding the existence, impact, and his- ticular school did have one course description that tory of racism in American education.2 Of the hun- mentioned learning issues associated with racial and dreds of course titles and descriptions reviewed for ethnic diversity, it was but one required course of the entire state of Massachusetts, only a very small many listed in the catalogue. number focused on the problem or impact ofracism Boston University, on the other hand, listed sev- in American society, or within the nation's educa- eral titles and descriptions of required courses sug- tional institutions. Certainly future teachers and ad- gesting racial, ethnic, and multicultural themes ministrators, teaching and working with young peo- pie in diverse social settings, should at least under- bulletins are, in fact, important marketing tools for stand the historical role that race and racism has a college or university. played in their profession. The analysis ofschool and program catalogues re- The Massachusetts Board of Education recently veals how various schools are approaching the need commissioned a major report indicating the impor- to develop greater sensitivityto diversityissues inthe tance of recruiting, hiring, and retaining a greater preparation of teachers. In addition to recruiting number of black, Latino, and Asian teachers. The and retaining agreater number ofblack, Latino, and report was submitted to the board by the Statewide Asian teachers, teacher preparation schools and Committee on the Recruitment of Black, Latino, programs need to prepare all teachers for the peda- and Asian Teachers in spring 1990. The thirty-five- gogical implications of an increasingly diverse soci- member statewide committee demonstrated that the ety. As was suggested by Dr. Peter Negroni, superin- presence of teachers of color in public school class- tendent ofthe Springfield public schools, the lack of rooms represented a vital resource in enabling the such a focus in their recruitment catalogues, while commonwealth to respond more effectively to its not immediate cause for criticism or condemnation, unfolding demographic, social, and economic chal- shows the need for expanded discussions regarding lenges. It is clear that achieving an acceptable the messages that teacher preparation schools may presence of black, Latino, and Asian teachers in the be sending in their catalogues.3 commonwealth's public schools cannot occur until School catalogues are but one yardstick for eval- more undergraduates from these racial and ethnic uating the strengths and weaknesses ofteacher prep- groups make career decisions to become teachers. aration programs. But, the official catalogue of a particular school may be the first piece of information that a potential applicant obtains in order to make a decision about whether to apply or not. If, There is a gap between the kind of information after reviewing several official catalogues, an aspir- and messages reported in the catalogues ofteacher ing teacher does not get any or even aminimum indi- preparation programs and schools and the cation ofthe importance of understanding the issue — of diversity in America today, then it is possible that statements ofleading educators as well as the a mistaken attitude about the importance of race — leaders ofindividual schools regarding the and ethnicity will be imbedded in the early phases of importance ofpreparing new teachersfor an teacher preparation. Teacher preparation schools and programs in Massachusetts need to examine increasingly racially and ethnically diverse state more closely the messages generated by these and world. catalogues. Schools should review their curriculum offerings in the context of increasing racial, ethnic, and lin- Several obstacles to greater participation and guistic diversity. The Joint Task Force on Teacher presence of black, Latino, and Asian teachers were Preparation, as pointed out by Dr. James Fraser of identified by the committee. Some ofthese obstacles Lesley College in an interview conducted for this included: study, has made recommendations to the Massachu- setts Board of Education regarding major changes • Minority undergraduate students' negative per- in how future teachers should be prepared and ceptions about the teaching profession; trained. Presently, all teacher preparation schools • Inadequate outreach and marketing services to minority undergraduates who may be potential and programs are required to respond to new state regulations for training teachers. This presents an teachers; and important opportunity for the leaders of these • Distorted curriculum messages regarding the schools to raise questions about the range and con- presence of minorities in society. tent of required and elective courses offered to fu- These kinds of obstacles can be overcome to some ture teachers and whether or not the courses address degree by what potential students read in the official the issue of diversity. catalogues ofthese schools and programs. The mes- Administrators and faculty must begin to look at sages that black, Latino, and Asian students glean these issues as ameans for recruiting minorityteach- from school catalogues are important in encourag- ers and meeting the challenges facing the common- ing or discouraging them regarding the possibility or wealth's educational system. There is a gap between A desirability of becoming teachers. catalogue that the kind of information and messages reported in suggests that a school or program reflects an appre- the catalogues of teacher preparation programs and ciation of racial, linguistic, and ethnic diversity, for schools and the statements ofleading educators—as example, may attract a greater number of black, well as the leaders of individual schools—regarding Latino, and Asian students. School catalogues and the importance of preparing new teachers for an increasingly racially and ethnically diverse state and positive messages and rhetoric appealing to poten- world. At this time, too few schools and programs tial black and Latino teachers is not enough. have utilized their school catalogues to impress Another educator on our panel, Dr. Luis Fuentes, upon potential black, Latino, and Asian teachers noted that along with examining course content, ef- the importance of their presence in these schools. forts to integrate and diversify the faculty and per- Most school catalogues continue to give the impres- sonnel at teacher preparation schools is critically sion that the experiences of people of color in the important. To offer courses that reflect an under- United States are not significant in the training of standing and appreciation of racial, ethnic, and lin- teachers. It appears that it would be relatively easy guistic diversity without attempts to reflect this for future white teachers to believe that the presence same diversity on the teaching staffs may not ulti- of black, Latino, and Asian colleagues is not a ser- mately result in the right kind of message. ious topic in their educational preparation. A poten- As a next step, course outlines should be thor- tial white teacher could easily be convinced from oughly reviewed by faculty and external advisory reading a school catalogue that an understanding of committees composed of educational, community, the black, Latino, or Asian experiences in this soci- and civic leaders. The selection of readings and ety is really not that important. Black, Latino, and topics must ensure that an appreciation of racial Asian readers ofthese same catalogues can easily get ethnic, and linguistic diversity is reflected in the the message that they are welcomed in many schools organization of the course. Additionally, all future and programs only as a token, not on a fully institu- teachers should be exposed to readings by and about tionalized or integrated basis. people of color and given opportunities to analyze these readings and discuss how they are related to teaching effectiveness in public schools. Finally, At this time, toofew schools andprograms have textbooks used in the instruction of teachers should reflect a broad range of social experiences in the utilized their school catalogues to impress upon United States. potential black, Latino, and Asian teachers the These are just a few steps that can be undertaken importance oftheir presence in these schools. to make the schools a more accurate reflection of today's rapidly changing world and to make our teachers more sensitive to the increasingly divergent Individual schools and programs need to evaluate needs of their students. themselves on this issue. Although school catalogues may not describe fully the kind of multicul- James Jennings is interim director of the Trotter Institute and tural and multiracial education that is taking directs the institute's Community Resource and Technical place-or, not taking place-at a particular school, Assistance Program. He was chair of the Statewide Committee on the Recruitment of Black, Latino, and Asian Teachers. they do represent some kind of indication. Since marketing ofthe teaching profession is important in the recruitment of black and Latino teachers, a re- Illene Carver is a graduate student at Wheelock College. view of curriculum guides and course outlines is needed to ensure that all future teachers are alerted to the importance of understanding the experiences Notes ofpeople ofcolor. But, as Dr. Theresa Perry pointed 1. The raw data for individual schools and programs is available out in an interview, the needed changes must move upon written request to the Trotter Institute. beyond "simply adding another course for minori- 2. MeyerWeinberg,A ChancetoLearn:A HistoryofRaceandEdu- cation in the UnitedStates (Cambridge University Press, 1977). ties," toward an "understanding and rethinking of 3. Dr. Negroni was among a panel of eight educators who were the entire curriculum in order to ensure that it re- asked to react to a preliminary draft of this report. They included flects all people and groups in our society." Simply TheresaPerry, Marian Darlington-Hope, James Fraser, Lenora M. Jen- nings, Jean McGuire, Juanita Wade and Luis Fuentes. Some of their producing a better-looking catalogue in terms of comments appear later in this article. Thoughts on Black Conservatism: A Review Essay by Martin Kilson Reflections of an Affirmative Action Baby, by Stephen L. Carter (New York: Basic Books, 1991), 286 pp. In Reflections of an Affirmative Action Baby, Stephen L. Carter, an Afro-American law professor at Yale University, has written a wide-ranging book on affirmative action policy. Like numerous other books on the subject, Carter covers the issues of its legitimacy as policy, white opposition, impact on black mobility, and contradictions faced by univer- Martin Kilson sities in administering affirmative action. Carter — Yet, on the other hand, Carter is insistent that his also offers a new area of discussion namely, the evolving division among Afro-Americans regarding opposition to affirmative action is not tantamount to a conservative demeanor. Instead, Carter craves affirmative action, allocating six of eleven chapters to be seen and understood as a friend of Afro- teoncfeascettos forfatmheisthisessuee.diCsacrutsesriounsses—haismoodwen eoxfpedriis-- America's civil rights agenda— and a rather special friend at that, one who happens to have thejump on course that offers considerable rhetorical facility. other black intellectuals in spotting the conditions This outcome suits his essential purpose, to high- bringing about the collapse of affirmative action light the downside rather than the upside ofaffirma- policy. As Carter puts it: tive action policy. But unlike such openly conservative critics of affirmative action as Nathan Glazer Mine is not, I hope, a position that will be and Thomas Sowell, Carter arrives at a negative thought inauthentically black. It is not, I position after having first embraced affirmative think, evidence of that most fatal of diseases action. Hence, his characterization ofhimselfas "an (for a black intellectual), neoconservatism; my affirmative action baby." views on many other matters are sufficiently to the left that I do not imagine the conservative Carter's Political Demeanor movement would want me. (Neither, I think, — The first thing that stands out about Carter's would the left but that is fine with me, for it is best for intellectuals to be politically unpre- tbuoroektoiswatrhed aauftfhiorrm'astipvoeliatcitcialona.nOdnidtehoeloogincealhapnods,- dictable.) The argument I present in this book is generated by reason but fired by love [for Carter's purpose is clearly antithetical to affirmative action policy. He wants to demonstrate, for instance, blacks], (p. 7) — that affirmative action has run its course as accept- Thus, Carter wants his readers especially Afro- able public policy, to critique illegitimate extensions American readers—to see him as ideologically of affirmative action disguised as diversity policy, neuter—without a political gender, so to speak— and above all, to warn Afro-Americans to prepare neither fish nor foul, just a kind of ideologically for the demise of affirmative action, a preparation sterile dispenser of public policy and moral insights he thinks requires greater civility of debate among regarding the dismantling of affirmative action — Afro-American intellectuals and leaders a comity practices. Carter also wants us to believe that his in- ofdiscourse rather akin to Mrs. Finch's sewing club. sights are not weighted in favor of the conservative As Carter says, "Sometimes I . . . have childish day- white power structures or white working-class con- dreams: Thomas Sowell and Derrick Bell shaking servatism. He wants his insights viewed as politically hands across the conference table. . . ." (p. 142) neutral guidelines to a postracial America in which, * Carter hopes, Americans will surrender race-linked the race-linked anxiety of white voters by emphasiz- discourse (along with gender-linked discourse) re- ing the preferential aspect of affirmative action. garding individual experiences and American insti- Carter says he wants to take this issue away from the tutional dynamics. conservative Republicans, a seemingly liberal thrust This argument, presented in humanistic terms on his part. From another vantage point, however, and breezy verbiage, has a curious quality: consider- Carter's wish to appease the anxiety of whites re- ing his background as a law and policy analyst, his garding affirmative action represents a rather con- discussion is strangely lacking in what might be servative posture, for the appeasing mechanism called policy specificity. In other words, once Afro- involves the surrender by blacks of a twenty-five- Americans have followed Carter's advice and wil- year policy. Carter suggests that this is the only road lingly surrendered affirmative action policy without to liberalizing white voters on the overall policy a fuss— a policy very much the operational center- needs of blacks — a suggestion put forth by other piece of the civil rights agenda—Carter offers not neoliberal critics of affirmative action including one clue as to how blacks and their allies should pro- Thomas Edsall in Chain Reaction: The Impact of ceed to engage both the public and private sectors to Race, Rights, And Taxes On American Politics (1991) facilitate closure of the black-white mobility gap and Jim Sleeper in The Closest ofStrangers (1990). rooted in America's racist patterns. Moreover, Carter's claim that his discussion of af- — firmative action is free of any ideological tilt is Carter wants his readers especially Afro-American politically naive and even intellectually disingenu- — ous. Carter must surely be aware that such conserva- readers to see him as ideobgically neuter—without tive organs as the Wall Street Journal and the a political gender, so to speak . . . National Review are intrinsically more attracted to his perspective than, say, the New York Amsterdam News, published by civil rights activist Wilbert Carter's discussion of the need for blacks to ap- Tatum. Nor would such mainstream organs of the pease white voters' anxiety toward affirmative new black bourgeoisie asBlackEnterprise display an action never mentions a reciprocal obligation on the intrinsic openness to Carter's presumptively apoliti- part ofwhites, nor does he probe the possible political, anti-affirmative action perspective. Why? Be- cal methodologies that might ensure this. Pre- cause the owner and editor ofBlackEnterprise, Earl sumably, the injury done by affirmative action Graves, knows the impact that current efforts to dis- policy to whites' mobility interests and normative mantle affirmative action policies have had on black sensibilities—relating to presumptively pristine — — businesses efforts like the 1989 Supreme Court values of achievement and merit negates the right decision in Richmond v. Croson, a decision clearly ofblacks to expect a reciprocal obligation. I suggest, responsible for the sharp decline of Atlanta's con- in short, that something fundamentally conserva- — tracts to minority firms from 43 percent in 1988 to tive—and neoconservative, at that informs Car- 14.5 percent in 1990. ter's critique of affirmative action, his protestations to the contrary notwithstanding. The Affirmative Action Issue In regard to the class bias of affirmative action toward the coping strata rather than poor Afro- Basic to Carter's claim that affirmative action has Americans, Carter commences his discussion with run its course as acceptable public policy are three the following observation: interrelated arguments: first, affirmative action is now opposed by most whites, especially when What has happened in black America in the era preferential treatment is the mechanism of affirma- ofaffirmative action is this: middle-class black tive action; second, affirmative action is flawed be- people are better offand lower-class black peo- cause it disproportionately benefits middle- and ple are worse off. Income stratification ... in upper-class blacks (what I call the coping strata), the black community has increased sharply not the poor, one-third of Afro-Americans; third, the number of black people in the higher- . . . Carter believes that American upward mobility pat- paying professional positions is growing faster terns are mediated by paradigms of pure achieve- than the number of white people. And at the ment or pure merit, creating moral confusion re- elite educational institutions affirmative . . . garding the mobility status of Afro-American bene- action programs are increasingly domi- . . . ficiaries of affirmative action—did they make it on nated by the children of the middle class. One their own or by racial preferences? need not argue that affirmative action is the Carter attaches much significance to white atti- cause of increasing income inequality in black — tudes for avery good reason because the conserva- America to understand that it is not a solution. tive Republican leadership under Bush manipulates (PP. 71-72) — Thus, Carter argues that a basic contradiction a tive assistance programs at all. This is clearly a con- — hypocritical dynamic exists in the civil rights intel- servative function that flows from a seemingly ligentsia's support of affirmative action. In Carter's liberal argument, that is, a pro-poor argument. In words, "The degree of one's support for affirmative this connection, it is interesting that professed ad- action in the professions bears no relation to the de- vocates ofthe poor among the critics of affirmative gree of one's concern about the situation of the action—like Carter—do not propose extending the black people who are worst off, for the programs do definition of the poor constituency they suggest them little good." Because of this contradiction, would be better served by affirmative action. In Carter is willing to dismiss affirmative action as other words, why not include the over 15 million merely a sham—an ostensibly progressive policy poor, white Americans as potential beneficiaries of which has been co-opted by well-to-do blacks. As affirmative action? I suggest that the bourgeois-tilt Carter puts it, "All the efforts at seeking to justify critics of affirmative action are not in fact intrinsi- racial preferences as justice or compensation mask cally interested in the plight of the poor, but rather the simple truth that among those training for busi- invoke this plight as a foil for attacking affirmative ness and professional careers, the benefits of af- action as such. firmative action fall to those least in need of them." (p. 72) The Pure-Merit Fetish Overall, Carter's antipathyto affirmative action is closely tied to his belief that black mobility under Carter is willing to dismiss affirmative action as affirmative action lacks moral quality. Throughout — his book, Carter displays a fervent emotional need merely a sham an ostensibly progressive policy to have what he considers his own superior intellec- which has been co-opted by well-to-do blacks. tual and professional achievement in law measured at par with comparable achievement by white professionals. In this, Carter joins the former Harvard University economist Glenn Loury (now at Boston I agree with Carter's characterization ofthe bour- University) and the Stanford University economist geois tilt of affirmative action policy and I would Thomas Sowell in blaming affirmative action poli- like to see this tilt balanced toward the poor. How- — cies for introducing a structure for the evaluation of ever, I disagree with Carter's implication namely, black professionals that, to their minds, emphasizes that the bourgeois tilt is intrinsically illegitimate, an the helping-hand role of public policy to the detri- argument common among neoconservative op- ment of the black individual's intrinsic capability. ponents of affirmative action. Princeton University Carter formulates this dilemma under the heading political scientist Russell Nieli wrote in a letter to the of "best black syndrome"—a valuative mode in New York Times (24 July 1991), "Affirmative action which whites measure high achieving blacks against programs often benefit those who do not de- . . . each other, not against comparable high achieving serve benefits." Such criticism lacks historical and whites, labelling the highest achieving black "best comparative perspective. Affirmative action policy black." Conservative black intellectuals, in general is a governmental response to the longstanding, un- (including Sowell, Loury, and Shelby Steele, among democratic, racial-caste marginalization of Afro- others), and Carter, in particular, have shown exas- Americans. Since middle-class blacks as well as peration and even bitterness toward this best black poor blacks suffered, both sectors of Afro-Ameri- syndrome. Carter formulates his position as follows: cans are legitimate potential beneficiaries of this policy. Furthermore, the bourgeois tilt of affirma- The best black syndrome creates in those of us tive action policy is hardly unique. Other federal as- who have benefitted from racial preferences a sistance policies for farmers, small businesses, veter- peculiar contradiction. We are told over and ans, and banks, for instance, have involved cases of over that we are among the best black people in those who are better off benefiting disproportion- our professions. And in part we are flattered ately. The bourgeois sector ofwhite ethnic groups of [for] those who call us the best black law- . . . Irish, Italians, and Jews also gained special benefits yers or doctors or investment bankers consider through what might be called defacto affirmative it a compliment. But to professionals who have — action the awarding of city and state contracts, worked hard to succeed, flattery of this kind loans, and jobs through patronage since the late carries an unsubtle insult, for we yearn to be 19th century.2 called what our achievements often deserve: What is the function of this argument for oppo- simply the best—no qualifiers needed! In this nents ofaffirmative action like Carter? I suggest it is [race conscious] society, however, we sooner or not to create an argument in favor of affirmative later must accept that being viewed as the best action policy to benefit poor blacks, but to create blacks ispartofwhathasledus to where weare. arguments detrimental to the existence of affirma- ... (p. 52) (Italics added) 10