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Trease and Evans Pharmacognosy For Elsevier Commissioning Editor: Pauline Graham Development Editor: Janice Urquhart, Fiona Conn Project Manager: Gail Wright Design Direction: George Ajayi Trease and Evans Pharmacognosy William Charles Evans BPharm BSc PhD DSc FIBiol FLS FRPharmS Revised with the assistance of Daphne Evans ba ma SIXTEENTH EDITION Edinburgh London New York Philadelphia St Louis Sydney Toronto 2009 © 2009, Elsevier Limited. All rights reserved. First published 1934 Sixteenth edition 2009 Fifteenth edition 2002 Fourteenth edition 1996 Thirteenth edition 1989 Twelfth edition 1983 No part of this publication may be reproduced or transmitted in any form or by any means, electronic or mechanical, including photocopying, recording, or any information storage and retrieval system, without permission in writing from the publisher. Permissions may be sought directly from Elsevier’s Rights Department: phone: (+1) 215 239 3804 (US) or (+44) 1865 843830 (UK); fax: (+44) 1865 853333; e-mail: [email protected]. You may also complete your request online via the Elsevier website at http://www.elsevier.com/permissions. ISBN 978-0-7020-2933-2 International Edition ISBN 978-0-7020-2934-9 British Library Cataloguing in Publication Data A catalogue record for this book is available from the British Library Library of Congress Cataloging in Publication Data A catalog record for this book is available from the Library of Congress Notice Knowledge and best practice in this field are constantly changing. As new research and experience broaden our knowledge, changes in practice, treatment and drug therapy may become necessary or appropriate. Readers are advised to check the most current information provided (i) on procedures featured or (ii) by the manufacturer of each product to be administered, to verify the recommended dose or formula, the method and duration of administration, and contraindications. It is the responsibility of the practitioner, relying on their own experience and knowledge of the patient, to make diagnoses, to determine dosages and the best treatment for each individual patient, and to take all appropriate safety precautions. To the fullest extent of the law, neither the Publisher nor the Editor assumes any liability for any injury and/or damage to persons or property arising out of or related to any use of the material contained in this book. The Publisher The publisher's policy is to use paper manufactured from sustainable forests Printed in China Contents Preface vii Part 3 Principles related to the commercial Contributors ix production, quality and standardization of natural products 81 Part 1 10. Commerce in crude drugs 83 Introduction 1 R. Baker 1. Plants in medicine: the origins of 11. Production of crude drugs 87 pharmacognosy 3 12. Plant growth regulators 93 2. The scope and practice of pharmacognosy 5 13. Plant cell and tissue culture; biochemical conversions; clonal propagation 98 3. Plant nomenclature and taxonomy 8 14. Phytochemical variation within a species 106 Part 2 The plant and animal kingdoms as 15. Deterioration of stored drugs 117 sources of drugs 13 16. Quality control 121 4. Biological and geographical sources of drugs 15 Part 4 5. A taxonomic approach to the study of Phytochemistry 133 medicinal plants and animal-derived 17. General methods associated with the drugs 18 phytochemical investigation of herbal products 135 6. Pharmacological activities of natural products 45 18. Basic metabolic pathways and the origin of secondary metabolites 148 7. Synergy and other interactions in phytomedicines 53 E. M. Williamson Part 5 Pharmacopoeial and related drugs 8. Traditional plant medicines as a source of of biological origin 169 new drugs 62 P. J. Houghton Introduction 171 9. Discovering new lead compounds in 19. Hydrocarbons and derivatives 173 pharmaceutical research and 20. Carbohydrates 194 development 75 M. J. O’Neill and J. A. Lewis 21. Phenols and phenolic glycosides 219 vi Contents 22. Volatile oils and resins 263 36. Asian medicine 498 S. E. Weston 23. Saponins, cardioactive drugs and other steroids 304 37. Chinese herbs in the West 504 S. Y. Mills 24. Miscellaneous isoprenoids 333 2 38. Plants in African traditional medicine—some 25. Cyanogenetic glycosides, glucosinolate perspectives 511 compounds, cysteine derivatives and A. Sofowora miscellaneous glycosides 347 26. Alkaloids 353 Part 7 27. The search for naturally derived Non-medicinal toxic plants and anticancer agents 416 pesticides 521 28. Antiprotozoal natural products 428 39. Hallucinogenic, allergenic, teratogenic and C. W. Wright other toxic plants 523 29. An overview of drugs with antihepatotoxic 40. Pesticides of natural origin 533 and oral hypoglycaemic activities 436 30. Antibacterial and antiviral drugs 445 Part 8 31. Vitamins and hormones 451 Morphological and microscopical examination of drugs 537 32. The plant nutraceuticals 459 G. B. Lockwood Introduction 539 33. Colouring and flavouring agents 471 41. Plant description, morphology and anatomy 541 34. Miscellaneous products 477 42. Cell differentiation and ergastic cell contents 551 Part 6 Plants in complementary and 43. Techniques in microscopy 563 traditional systems of medicine 483 Introduction 485 Index 571 35. Herbal medicine in Britain and Europe: regulation and practice 487 S. Y. Mills Preface Pharmacognosy embraces a number of scientific and closely related species of medicinal plants and for other disciplines providing a unified and comprehen- the recognition of chemical races with variable phar- sive treatment of medicinal plants. There are constant macological properties; a number of examples will advances and changes affecting all areas of the subject be found throughout the text. and, as in the past, this 16th edition addresses these As previously, I am much indebted to the contribu- new developments while at the same time maintain- tors, who have given of their time and expertise to ing the fundamental concepts required for the teach- provide new or revised chapters on topics of cur- ing of all aspects of the subject. It should continue rent interest. It is with much regret that I record the to be of value not only to those of a pharmaceutical death of my former colleague Dr Mohammed Aslam, and medical persuasion but also to scholars of other who with characteristic enthusiasm had initiated and disciplines who have an interest in natural products. continued to update the chapter on Asian medicine, Over 60 crude drugs, recently included in edi- Thanks are due to Dr R. Hardman, Dr K. Helliwell, tions of the European and British pharmacopoe- Dr L. W. Levy and Prof. J. D. Phillipson for aspects ias, have now been given separate entries in Part 3. concerning current developments, and to Seven Seas Cognizance has been taken of the shift away from Limited, Marfleet, for kindly updating entries on fish material collected in the wild, which results in the oils. Library facilities were made available by the endangerment of species, towards cultivation under Universities of Bath, Bristol, Exeter and Reading, controlled conditions. The implementation of legal the Royal Pharmaceutical Society of Great Britain, requirements for the quality control of herbal drugs the Secretariat of the European Scientific Cooperative and medicines has given an even greater significance for Phytotherapy and the Taunton Public Library. to the development of additional standardization and Daphne, my wife, has assisted me throughout analytical procedures; similarly for traditional Asian by providing miscellaneous contributions to the and Chinese medicines. text, carrying out literature searches and helping Subsequent to the publication of the 15th edition of with the organization of the manuscript; without this book, many new phytochemicals, their structures her dedicated help, this edition would not have and pharmacological activities, have been reported, been possible. Miscellaneous practical support especially from those plant materials having current afforded by other family members is also much interest. In this respect, a new chapter covering plant appreciated. nutraceuticals gives emphasis to the attention now I am grateful to the publishers in Edinburgh for being given to this diverse group of pharmacologi- their usual helpful assistance and understanding. cally active food constituents. Genetic fingerprinting, now widely used by plant taxonomists, is becoming W. C. E. increasingly important for the characterization of 2009 This page intentionally left blank Contributors Robin Baker Melanie J. O’Neill BPharm PhD MRPharmS RoA Services Ltd, Harwich, UK Medicines Research Centre, GlaxoSmithKline, Stevenage, UK Peter J. Houghton BPharm PhD FRPharmS CChem FRSC Department of Pharmacy, King’s College London, Abayomi Sofowora BPharm PhD London, UK Faculty of Pharmacy, Obafemi Awolowo University, Ife-Ife, Nigeria Jane A. Lewis BSc PhD Medicines Research Centre, Samantha E. Weston BPharm MBA MRPharmS GlaxoSmithKline, Stevenage, UK School of Pharmacy, University of Reading, Reading, UK G. Brian Lockwood BPharm PhD MRPharmS School of Pharmacy and Pharmaceutical Sciences, Elizabeth M. Williamson BSc PhD MRPharmS FLS University of Manchester, Manchester, UK School of Pharmacy, University of Reading, Reading, UK Simon Y. Mills MA FNIMH MCCP Centre for Complementary Health Studies, Colin W. Wright BPharm MSc PhD MRPharmS University of Exeter, Exeter, UK School of Pharmacy, University of Bradford, Bradford, UK